THE 

YOUNG  FARMER 


SOME  THINGS 

HE  SHOULD 

KNOW 


THOMAS  F. 


Irvine 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


GIFT  OF 


Hans  Duveneck 

tfciiv.  of  California 
Withdrawn 


i 


The 

Young  Farmer 

I 

Some  Things  He  Should  Know 


Bf 

THOMAS  F.  HUNT 

l» 


Imperial  man  !     Co-worker  with  the  wind 
And  rain  and  light  and  heat  and  cold,  and  all 
The  agencies  of  God  to  feed  and  clothe 
And  render  beautiful  and  glad  the  world ! 

— Stockard 


NEW  YORK 

ORANGE    JUDD    COMPANY 

LONDON 

KEGAN  PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  &  Co.,  Limited 


s 

S 
//S5 


Copyright,  1912,  by 

OrtANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All  Ritht*  Reserved 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall 
LONDON.  ENGLAND 


PRINTED  IN  U.  S.  A. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I    ESSENTIALS  OF  SUCCESS i 

II  MEANS  OF  ACQUIRING  LAND      ....     14 

III  FARM   ORGANIZATION 31 

IV  OPPORTUNITIES  IN  AGRICULTURE    ...    44 
V    WHERE  TO  LOCATE 57 

VI     SIZE  OF  FARM 64 

VII     SELECTION  OF  FARM 71 

VIII    THE  FARM  SCHEME 88 

IX  THE  ROTATION  OF  CROPS      .     .     .     .  •.  101 

X    THE  EQUIPMENT 109 

XI     How  TO  ESTIMATE  PROFITS 117 

XII     GRAIN  AND  HAY  FARMING 135 

XIII  THE  COST  OF  FARMING  OPERATIONS    .     .  148 

XIV  THE  PLACE  OF  INTENSIVE  FARMING     .     .162 
XV  REASONS  FOR  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  .     .     .172 

XVI     RETURNS  FROM  ANIMALS 185 

XVII     FARM  LABOR 195 

XVIII     SHIPPING 210 

XIX     MARKETING 220 

XX  LAWS  AFFECTING  LAND  AND  LABOR    .     .  233 

XXI     RURAL  LEGISLATION 248 

XXII  RURAL  FORCES                                          .  268 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER: 
SOME  THINGS  HE  SHOULD  KNOW 


CHAPTER  I 
ESSENTIALS  OF  SUCCESS 

COLUMELLA,  the  much  traveled 
Spanish-Roman  writer  of  the  first 
century  A.  D.,  said  that  for  successful 
farming  three  things  are  essential:  knowl- 
•  edge,  capital  and  love  for  the  calling.  This 
statement  is  just  as  true  today  as  it  was  when 
written  1900  years  ago  by  this  early  writer 
on  European  agriculture. 

Every  man  who  loves  the  calling  and  has 
an  ambition  to  become  a  successful  farmer 
should  understand  that  no  two  of  these 
essentials  are  sufficient,  but  that  all  three 
are  necessary.  Although  this  is  so  simple 
as  to  be  almost  axiomatic,  it  is  indeed  sur- 
prising how  few  people  believe  a  knowl- 
edge of  farming  is  really  essential  to  success. 

America  is  strewn  with  cases  of  failure, 
in  farming,  by  men  investing  capital  ac- 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

quired  in  other  business.  In  nine  cases  out 
of  ten  failure  has  been  due  to  lack  of  knowl- 
edge of  farming. 

There  is  known  to  the  writer  an  expert 
mineralogist  and  metallurgist.  On  the  sub- 
ject of  coal  and  gold  mining  he  can  give 
the  most  valuable  information.  His  advice 
is  constantly  sought  on  all  such  matters. 
Instead  of  investing  his  money  in  mining, 
on  which  he  is  a  recognized  authority,  he 
has  invested  it  in  a  farm,  about  which  he 
knows  next  to  nothing.  He  has  not  even 
had  the  advantage  of  being  raised  on  a  farm, 
since  his  father  was  a  railroad  man. 

A  mechanical  engineer  remarked  that  if 
he  had  $25,000  he  would  invest  it  in  a  farm. 
This  man  is  supposed  to  be  an  expert  in 
business  methods  as  applied  to  manufactur- 
ing in  general,  and  he  is  especially  con- 
versant with  the  manufacture  and  trade  in 
automobiles.  About  all  he  has  seen  of 
farming  he  has  observed  from  the  window 
of  a  Pullman  car  or  from  the  steering  wheel 
of  an  automobile.  Instead  of  investing  his 
earnings  in  some  manufacturing  business, 

2 


ESSENTIALS  OF  SUCCESS 

about  which  he  has  spent  years  of  study 
and  in  which  he  has  had  some  training,  he 
would  invest  it  in  farming,  of  which  he  has 
only  the  most  rudimentary  knowledge,  if 
only  he  had  sufficient  capital.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  he  is  more  in  need  of  knowledge 
than  of  capital. 

Even  farmers  of  experience  do  not  always 
realize  the  training  required  to  succeed  in 
farming.  A  letter  was  received  by  the  dean 
of  a  certain  agricultural  college  saying  that 
a  graduate  of  another  agricultural  college 
had  taken  one  of  the  poorest  farms  in  his 
neighborhood  and  was  raising  better  pota- 
toes than  anyone  else  could  raise.  The  let- 
ter asked  that  information  be  sent  by  return 
mail  as  to  how  this  young  man  could  be 
beaten  in  raising  potatoes.  Of  course  the 
answer  had  to  be  sent  that  while  informa- 
tion upon  raising  potatoes  could  easily  be 
supplied,  although  not  in  the  limits  of  an 
ordinary  letter,  the  training  in  observation, 
judgment  and  reasoning  faculties  essential 
to  meet  the  daily  problems  as  they  arise 
could  not  be  supplied. 

3 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

There  is  no  objection  to  men  of  other 
vocations  adopting  farming  as  an  avocation 
if  they  can  afford  it.  It  is  a  rational  form  of 
pleasure  for  wealthy  people,  and  one  in 
which  they  can  often  be  of  great  service. 
This  cannot  be  said  of  all  forms  of  relaxa- 
tion. Wealthy  men  have  been  of  special 
service  to  the  cause  of  agriculture  by  pro- 
moting the  breeding  of  improved  live  stock. 
Men  in  other  callings  should  clearly  under- 
stand, however,  that  if  they  have  a  farm 
merely  as  a  place  to  spend  a  week  end,  that 
they  may  expect  to  find  the  financial  returns 
unsatisfactory. 

To  no  one  is  there  more  significance  in  the 
old  school  aphorism  "knowledge  is  power" 
than  to  the  young  man  who  is  to  become  a 
farmer.  While  it  is  not  necessary  to  be 
educated  in  schools  in  order  to  gain  knowl- 
edge, yet  the  schoolroom  with  all  its  limita- 
tions is  usually  the  most  economical  and 
most  efficient  method  of  acquiring  certain 
forms  of  knowledge  essential  to  every  suc- 
cessful man  or  woman.  A  farm-to-farm 
canvass  of  a  certain  region  of  the  state  of 

4 


ESSENTIALS  OF  SUCCESS 

New  York  discloses  the  fact  that  farmers 
with  college  training  are  obtaining  a  higher 
income  from  their  farms  than  those  whose 
school  days  ended  with  high  school.  Simi- 
larly, those  who  have  finished  the  high 
school  are  more  prosperous  financially  than 
those  who  never  advanced  beyond  the 
grades.  The  investigation  showed,  for 
example,  that  with  the  farmers  under 
observation  the  high  school  education  was 
equivalent  to  $6,000  worth  of  5%  bonds. 
Farming  is  an  occupation  requiring  keen 
observation,  sound  judgment  and  accurate 
reasoning,  all  attributes  which  are  strength- 
ened greatly  by  proper  education.  This  is 
so  true  that  many  men,  perhaps  most  men, 
are  forty  before  they  have  grasped  the 
problems  which  the  truly  successful  farmer 
must  solve. 

A  considerable  part  of  the  knowledge 
essential  to  success  in  any  pursuit  is  acquired 
by  actually  working  at  the  occupation,  or, 
as  we  say,  by  practical  experience.  Some 
features  of  any  occupation  can  be  obtained 
in  no  other  way.  A  preliminary  education 

5 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

may,  however,  greatly  reduce  the  time 
necessary  to  acquire  even  this  practical  ex- 
perience. For  example,  a  course  in  shop 
work  as  taught  in  technical  high  schools  and 
colleges,  requiring  two  hours  a  day  for  five 
months,  may  shorten  the  time  of  apprentice- 
ship by  one  or  more  years,  in  acquiring  the 
trade  of  carpenter  or  iron  worker.  In  the 
same  manner  a  course  in  butter  making, 
cheese  making  or  floriculture,  may  shorten 
the  time  required  to  obtain  the  necessary 
practical  details  by  ten  months  or  even 
more.  Eventually,  also,  the  man  thus 
trained  will  be  the  better  man. 

If  the  industrial  activities  of  the  world 
be  divided  into  farming,  mining,  manufac- 
turing, trade  and  transportation,  it  will  be 
noted  at  once  that  farming  is  the  only  one 
which  deals  with  living  things.  In  fact,  the 
definition  of  agriculture,  in  its  broadest 
sense,  is  the  economic  production  of  living 
things.  The  farmer  is  thus  brought  face  to 
face  with  some  of  the  most  difficult  and  in- 
tricate problems  with  which  the  human  race 
has  to  grapple.  It  is  this  fact  that  makes 

6 


ESSENTIALS  OF  SUCCESS 

farming,  in  some  ways,  the  most  uncertain  as 
well  as  the  most  fascinating  occupation 
known  to  man.  The  fact  that  the  farmer 
is  dealing  with  living  things  puts  his  occu- 
pation in  a  class  by  itself  for  a  number  of 
reasons,  one  of  which  is  germane  to  the  sub- 
ject of  this  chapter. 

In  most  occupations  a  larger  part  of  the 
knowledge  necessary  to  success  can  be 
acquired  by  doing  than  is  the  case  in  farm- 
ing. Locomotive  engineers  are  trained  for 
their  responsible  duty  while  firing  the 
engine.  The  brakeman  becomes  a  conduc- 
tor by  assisting  the  latter.  A  bank  cashier 
is  usually  a  promoted  bank  clerk.  Each 
obtained  the  knowledge  essential  to  success 
largely  by  oft-repeated  performance. 

While,  of  course,  there  is  much  the 
farmer  can  learn  only  by  experience,  there 
are  many  things  essential  to  his  success  that 
the  mere  performance  of  the  necessary 
farm  operations  will  not  teach  him.  Spread- 
ing manure  will  never  teach  him  that  stable 
manure  should  be  supplemented  with  phos- 
phoric acid  in  order  to  get  the  best  results. 

7 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

The  growing  of  clover  will  not  teach  him 
that  mineral  fertilizer  may  keep  up  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil  where  clover  grows  luxu- 
riantly and  occurs  in  the  rotation  at  definite 
intervals.  Feeding  cattle  will  not  teach  him 
that  a  good  ration  for  milch  cows  is  one  con- 
taining one  pound  of  digestible  protein  to 
seven  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates, 
provided  it  is  palatable  and,  at  least,  two- 
thirds  of  the  total  ration  is  digestible.  Nor 
will  the  feeding  of  such  a  ration  teach  the 
farmer  how  to  calculate  the  most  economi- 
cal ration  from  feeding  stuffs  at  current 
prices.  The  cause  of  potato  blight  and  the 
methods  of  combating  it  cannot  be  learned 
from  the  operation  of  planting  and  cultivat- 
ing potatoes. 

These  are  only  a  few  illustrations — they 
might  be  multiplied  indefinitely — to  show 
that  farming  is  peculiar  in  that  perform- 
ance of  the  daily  duties  does  not  give  the 
knowledge  essential  to  success  in  the  same 
measure  that  it  does  in  such  occupations  as 
banking,  trade  and  transportation.  Yet, 
curiously  enough,  while  no  man  would 

8 


ESSENTIALS  OF  SUCCESS 

undertake  to  run  a  locomotive  engine  or 
perform  the  duties  of  cashier  of  a  bank 
without  thorough  training,  there  are  many 
who  will  undertake  to  farm  without  educa- 
tion or  knowledge  of  the  business. 

The  young  man  who  intends  to  become  a 
farmer  should  fully  understand  that  if 
farming  is  not  a  business  worthy  of  a  thor- 
oughly educated  man,  it  is  not  a  business 
worthy  of  him;  because  every  young  man 
is  worthy  of  a  thorough  education,  provided 
he  is  a  man  of  clean  habits  and  good  pur- 
poses. Do  not  allow  yourself  to  be  per- 
suaded that  you  lack  ability  to  acquire  a 
good  education.  All  you  require  is  oppor- 
tunity, determination  and  honesty  of  inten- 
tion. 

Farming  is  worthy,  moreover,  of  the 
most  highly  educated  as  well  as  the  most 
capable.  If  lack  of  means  prevents  a  young 
man  from  taking  a  four-years'  training  in 
agriculture,  he  will  find  a  two  years'  course 
offered  by  many  of  the  state  agricultural 
schools.  While  it  is  obviously  impossible 
to  give  in  two  years  as  much  training  as  in 

9 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

four  years,  these  two  years'  courses  contain 
the  more  technical  subjects  and  are  usually 
very  thorough  and  efficient.  No  young 
man,  no  matter  how  thorough  his  previous 
training,  need  hesitate  to  pursue  one  of 
them. 

There  are,  however,  young  men  who  can- 
not spare  the  time  and  expense  of  even  two 
years'  training.  For  such  many  state  agri- 
cultural colleges  offer  winter  terms  of  eight 
to  twelve  weeks.  These  courses  are  arranged 
to  allow  the  student  to  specialize  along 
some  particular  line.  The  better  prepared 
the  man  is  who  enters  these  winter  courses 
the  more  he  will  benefit  by  them.  This 
leads  to  the  caution  that  such  courses  should 
not  be  substituted  for  the  education  offered 
in  the  public  schools,  but  should  only  be 
sought  after  all  the  opportunities  for  educa- 
tion at  home  have  been  exhausted. 

For  the  somewhat  older  young  man  who 
is  now  farming  and  cannot  leave  his  farm 
or  for  the  younger  man  as  a  preparation 
for  the  short  courses,  one  or  more  corre- 
spondence courses  will  be  found  useful.  Not 

10 


ESSENTIALS  OF  SUCCESS 

all  colleges  conduct  correspondence  courses, 
but  fortunately  those  who  do  will  accept 
students  from  other  states  on  equal  terms. 
There  are  many  persons  who  will  testify  to 
their  helpfulness. 

Every  young  farmer  should  hare  a  care- 
fully selected  library  of  standard  books  on 
agriculture,  not  only  for  reading  but  for 
reference.  An  instance  of  the  value  of  a 
standard  book  of  reference  came  recently 
to  the  attention  of  the  writer.  An  educated 
young  farmer  in  Iowa  paid  $2.50  for  a  peck 
of  crimson  clover  seed  which  he  sowed  in 
the  spring  in  his  oats.  A  reference  to  any 
standard  publication  on  forage  crops  cost- 
ing less  than  the  peck  of  seed  would  have 
disclosed  to  him  the  probable  hopelessness 
of  success  under  the  conditions  named. 

The  books  to  include  as  well  as  to  exclude 
from  a  select  list  will  depend  upon  the 
previous  training  of  the  man  making  the 
purchase,  the  character  of  the  farming  to  be 
pursued,  and,  to  some  extent,  to  the  section 
of  the  country  where  the  farm  is  located. 
Any  bookseller  can  secure  catalogs  issued  by 

ii 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

firms  making  a  specialty  of  publishing  agri- 
cultural books.  For  the  average  reader 
these  catalogs  are  sufficient  to  enable  one  to 
make  intelligent  purchases. 

Every  farmer  should  take  one  or  more 
agricultural  journals.  At  present  journals 
are  published  on  every  phase  of  agriculture 
and  many  of  them  are  of  high  character. 
Publishers  are  always  glad  to  send  sample 
copies  free  of  charge.  By  examining  these 
copies  intelligent  selection  may  be  made. 

The  writer  of  this  book  has  had  rather 
unusual  opportunity  during  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  century  of  observing  the  influ- 
ence of  education  upon  the  success,  financial 
and  otherwise,  of  those  who  engage  in  farm- 
ing. As  the  result  of  these  observations  he 
wishes  to  urge  every  young  man  to  allow  no 
one  to  persuade  him  that  because  he  is  to 
be  a  farmer,  he  does  not  need  a  thorough 
education.  Remember  that  you  have  but 
one  life  to  live,  and  if  you  let  the  golden 
opportunity  pass,  the  mistake  can  never  be 
rectified.  No  man  ever  regretted  that  he 
12 


ESSENTIALS  OF  SUCCESS 

had  too  much  education — thousands  have 
regretted  the  lack  of  it. 

Every  young  man,  no  matter  what  his 
occupation  is  to  be,  should  receive  some 
school  training,  however  little  it  may  be, 
every  year  until  he  reaches  the  age  of  major- 
ity. Otherwise  the  age  of  majority  should 
be  changed.  In  no  occupation  is  this  more 
important  than  in  farming,  because  the 
operations  involved  in  farming  fail  to  de- 
velop certain  attributes  necessary  to  the 
largest  success. 

A  man  cannot  have  a  mind  too  well 
trained,  although  it  is  possible  that  he  may 
have  too  much  undigested  information.  The 
mental  condition  may  not  be  unlike  the 
physical  condition  of  the  man  who  is  bur- 
dened with  too  many  clothes.  When  in 
action  he  may  need  to  strip  his  mind  of  un- 
necessary information  in  order  to  make  the 
most  efficient  mental  effort. 


o 


CHAPTER  II 
MEANS  OF  ACQUIRING  LAND 

F  the  three  essentials  to  successful  farm- 
ing— capital,  knowledge  and  love  for 
the  calling — only  the  first  can  be  obtained  on 
credit,  and  this  only  in  part.  Usually  when 
a  man  desires  to  buy  a  farm  he  must  have, 
at  least,  one-third  of  his  desired  investment 
in  cash.  The  amount  to  be  invested  will 
include,  not  only  the  cost  of  the  land,  but 
the  cost  of  the  necessary  equipment  of  the 
farm.  The  percentage  of  the  total  capital 
which  may  be  borrowed,  however,  will  de- 
pend on  many  circumstances  and  is  usually 
a  matter  of  first  importance.  No  man 
should  borrow  more  than  a  banker  or  other 
reputable  business  man  considers  a  safe  in- 
vestment. 

Usually  there  is  no  better  counselor  as  to 
a  safe  investment  than  the  local  banker. 
The  banker  should,  and  generally  does, 
stand  in  much  the  same  relation  to  the 
financial  welfare  of  the  community  as  the 


MEANS  OF  ACQUIRING  LAND 

physician  to  its  physical,  the  minister  to  its 
moral  and  spiritual  welfare.  The  inexperi- 
enced person,  even  if  he  does  not  need  to 
borrow  money,  would  do  well  to  consult 
some  responsible  banker  in  the  neighbor- 
hood before  making  an  investment  in  farm 
lands. 

The  young  man  should,  as  early  as  possi- 
ble in  life,  open  an  account  with  the  local 
bank,  not  merely  for  the  sake  of  the  habit  of 
saving  which  this  will  encourage,  but  in 
order  to  come  into  personal  business  rela- 
tions with  the  banker.  Instead  of  conceal- 
ing from  the  bank  his  business  operations, 
he  should  seek  the  advice  of  his  banker  on 
all  important  financial  matters. 

On  an  average,  every  farm  changes  hands 
at  least  three  times  in  a  century.  Every 
farm,  therefore,  must  be  acquired  by  pur- 
chase, inheritance  or  gift  at  more  or  less 
irregular  intervals.  In  the  neighborhood 
in  which  the  author  was  born,  there  is  not  a 
farm  but  has  changed  hands  since  he  can 
remember.  In  many  cases  the  farm  is  now 
in  the  possession  of  a  son ;  in  some  instances 
15 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

in  that  of  a  grandson  of  the  owner  as  known 
by  the  writer  in  his  boyhood  days.  In  this 
particular  community  the  acquirement  of  a 
farm  by  a  person  not  related  to  the  former 
owner  has  occurred  in  relatively  few 
instances. 

As  a  rule,  when  the  farm  has  been 
acquired  by  a  son,  the  latter  has  operated 
the  farm  as  tenant  or  partner  for  a  period 
previous  to  his  ownership  and  during  life- 
time of  the  father.  In  some  instances  the 
son  has  boarded  with  the  parents  or  the  par- 
ents with  the  son  and  his  wife;  or,  in  the 
case  of  a  daughter,  with  the  daughter  and 
son-in-law. 

Where  there  are  several  heirs,  as  is  apt 
to  be  the  case,  the  son  operating  the  farm  is 
required  to  purchase  or  rent  the  interest  of 
the  other  heirs,  unless  the  farm  is  large 
enough  to  be  divided,  which  is  less  seldom 
the  case  than  is  popularly  supposed.  Thus, 
if  there  are  200  acres  of  land  worth  $50  an 
acre,  and  five  heirs,  the  young  farmer  may 
inherit  $2,000,  and  be  required  to  assume 
the  remaining  $8,000  as  an  obligation.  He 

16 


MEANS  OF  ACQUIRING  LAND 

may  borrow  this  money  at  the  bank,  placing 
a  mortgage  upon  the  farm,  thus  settling 
with  the  other  heirs  at  once.  Or  he  may 
pay  the  other  heirs  rent  on  their  share  of  the 
farm.  In  any  case  he  will,  if  successful, 
gradually  cancel  his  obligation  and  become 
owner  of  the  farm.  That  no  heir  is  willing 
to  assume  this  responsibility  is  the  most 
common  reason  for  a  farm  changing  from 
one  family  to  another,  and  the  disruption  of 
community  interests. 

The  customary,  or  normal,  method  of 
acquiring  land  has  been  and  still  is  a  com- 
bination of  tenancy,  inheritance  and  mort- 
gage. Without  some  tenant  system  and 
without  the  farm  mortgage,  it  would  be 
impossible  for  the  average  young  man  to 
acquire  a  farm.  That  men  are  constantly 
advancing  from  farm  tenant  to  landowner 
is  shown  by  statistics  giving  the  percentage 
of  tenants  by  ages.  The  majority  of  farmers 
under  30  are  renters.  Most  farmers  over 
45  are  owners  of  farm  land.  Thus  in 
Illinois,  in  1900,  approximately  75%  of  the 
farmers  under  25  years  of  age  rented  their 

17 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

farms,  while  less  than  20%  of  the  farmers 
over  55  years  of  age  were  tenants. 

The  question  for  the  young  man  to  con- 
sider is  not  what  effect  the  tenant  system 
has  upon  the  welfare  of  the  nation  or  what 
political  ills  may  be  connected  with  farm 
mortgages,  but  how  to  make  use  of  these 
necessary  and  beneficent  agencies  for  the 
acquirement  of  a  farm.  A  system  of  tenancy 
which  leads  to  absent  landlordism  and  a 
permanent  tenant  class  is  thoroughly 
vicious,  while  a  practice  which  enables  a 
man  to  become,  within  a  reasonable  period, 
a  land-owning  farmer  is  a  thoroughly  ap- 
provable  and,  indeed,  necessary  method  of 
acquiring  land. 

As  already  indicated,  most  young  men 
will  need  in  some  form  or  other  to  employ 
more  capital  than  they  possess  when  they 
start  farming.  They  must,  therefore, 
determine  what  is  the  best  form  of  obtain- 
ing the  necessary  capital,  viz. :  whether  to 
borrow  the  money  on  a  farm  mortgage,  or 
whether  to  use  the  capital  someone  else  has 
invested  in  a  farm  by  paying  him  rent  for  it. 
18 


MEANS  OF  ACQUIRING  LAND 

The  conditions  of  tenancy  in  this  country 
are  often  not  the  most  fortunate,  yet  the 
young  man  of  character  may  well  find,  for 
a  time,  at  least,  it  would  be  best  for  him  to 
rent  a  farm  and  invest  his  own  capital  in  the 
necessary  machinery  and  live  stock  to  con- 
duct it  properly. 

Much  will  depend  on  the  character  of  the 
arrangement  which  may  be  made.  Usually 
more  favorable  terms  can  be  secured  from 
landlords  owning  large  numbers  of  farms 
than  from  the  owner  of  one  or  two  farms. 
The  large  landowner  is  content  with  a 
moderate  income  from  each  farm,  because 
in  the  aggregate  his  income  is  sufficient  for 
his  needs,  while  the  retired  farmer  who 
must  live  off  the  proceeds  of  a  single  farm 
is  apt  to  drive  a  hard  bargain  and  may  not 
be  over  particular  concerning  the  main- 
tenance of  said  farm.  The  writer  knows  a 
farmer  who  owns  a  good  farm  purchased 
from  the  proceeds  of  a  rented  farm.  He 
continues  to  live  on  the  rented  farm  and 
rents  his  own,  because,  it  is  said,  his  land- 
19 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

lord  is  willing  to  make  him  more  favorable 
terms  than  he  makes  to  his  tenant. 

The  more  capable  the  tenant  the  more 
favorable  the  terms  he  may  exact.  Certain 
tenants  are  in  demand  and  can  have  their 
choice  of  farms.  A  prosperous-looking 
man  was  pointed  out  recently  as  an  example 
of  a  tenant  capable  of  buying  a  farm  in  one 
of  the  most  highly  developed  counties  in  the 
United  States.  It  was  stated  that  as  a  renter 
he  could  have  his  choice  of  any  farm  in 
the  county,  but  that  he  did  not  have  a  dollar 
invested  in  farm  land.  Possibly  he  invests 
his  surplus  earnings  in  stocks  and  bonds. 

It  is  not  the  present  purpose  to  determine 
the  relative  merits  of  the  different  systems  of 
land  tenure,  but  to  try  to  be  helpful  to  the 
beginners  by  discussing  the  usual  practices 
in  order  that  he  may  know  whether  the 
arrangement  he  is  considering  is  customary 
and  whether  it  is  likely  to  prove  satisfactory. 

Every  third  farm  in  the  United  States  is 
rented  under  one  of  three  methods : 

i.  A  definite  money  rent  may  be  paid, 
ranging  from  $2  to  $6  an  acre  for  land  on 
20 


MEANS  OF  ACQUIRING  LAND 

which  the  ordinary,  staple  crops  are  raised. 
Perhaps  $3  to  $4  is  more  commonly  paid 
for  such  land. 

2.  In  the  South  it  is  common  for  the  land- 
lord to  require  a  definite  number  of  pounds 
of  cotton  per  acre  or  a  certain  number  of 
bales  of  cotton  for  a  one  or  two-mule  farm, 
as    the    case    may    be.     This    is    classi- 
fied  by    the    census    authorities    as    "cash 
rent,"    but    will    here    be    called    "crop 
rent."    Crop  rent  is  less  common  than  either 
cash  or  share  rent  in  the  northern  and  west- 
ern states,  although  perhaps  the  most  com- 
mon form  in  the  South.     Crop  rent,  how- 
ever, is  met  with  in  some  sections,  as  in 
western  New  York  where  certain  large  land- 
owners require  a  definite  number  of  bushels 
of  wheat,  oats  or  maize  and  make  certain 
stipulations   as   to   hay   and   straw.    They 
charge  a  cash  rent  for  pasture. 

3.  Much  the  most  common  form  of  ten- 
ancy, however,  is  that  where  a  certain  per- 
centage  or  share  of  the  product  is  given  the 
landlord  for  the  use  of  the  land. 

21 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

Before  entering  into  a  discussion  of  the 
customary  conditions  under  which  land  is 
rented  on  shares  it  may  be  helpful  to  point 
out  the  fundamental  differences  between 
cash  rent,  crop  rent  and  share  rent.  In  case 
of  cash  rent,  the  landlord  takes  no  risk, 
either  as  to  the  price  or  the  amount  of 
product.  In  the  case  of  crop  rent,  he  shares 
the  risk  as  to  the  variation  in  price,  but  not 
as  to  the  amount  of  crop  raised.  The  latter 
may  depend  upon  the  clemency  of  the 
weather  or  upon  the  industry  and  skill  of 
the  tenant.  In  the  case  of  share  rent,  both 
landlord  and  tenant  share  equally  as  to 
variation  in  the  price  and  the  amount  of 
product. 

Three  forms  of  share  rent  may  be  recog- 
nized: 

(a)  Where  landlord  furnishes  only  real 
estate  (land  and  buildings),  the  tenant  sup- 
plying everything  else,  including  teams, 
machinery,  labor,  seeds  and  fertilizers. 
Under  these  conditions  it  is  customary  for 
the  landlord  to  receive  one-third  and  the 
22 


MEANS  OF  ACQUIRING  LAND 

tenant  two-thirds  of  the  crop  raised  or  the 
product  produced. 

(b)  The  second  form  of  share  rent  is 
where  the  landlord  furnishes  the  real  estate ; 
the  tenant  supplies  teams,  tools  and  labor, 
while  the  landlord  and  tenant  own  equally 
all  live  stock  other  than  teams,  and  bear 
equally  all  other  expenses,  as  for  seeds,  fer- 
tilizers and  cost  of  threshing.  Under  this 
system,  it  is  customary  for  landlord  and 
tenant  each  to  receive  one-half  of  all  sales. 
As  each  owns  one-half  of  all  the  live  stock 
(teams  excepted),  each  shares  equally  in  all 
increase.  The  landlord  pays  for  the  cost 
of  permanent  improvements  such  as  new 
buildings,  fences,  repairs  and  drainage. 
The  tenant,  in  making  these  improvements, 
in  some  cases,  agrees  to  furnish  two  days' 
labor  for  one  day's  pay.  The  theory  is  that, 
while  the  increased  value  of  the  real  estate 
is  of  advantage  only  to  the  landlord,  the 
improved  facilities  are  of  some  benefit  to 
the  tenant.  Since  he  can  do  this  work  at  odd 
times  when  not  otherwise  employed,  he  can 
afford  to  take  a  generous  view  of  the  mat- 
23 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

ter.  It  is  obvious  that  if  he  remains  on  the 
farm  long  enough  the  tenant  will  come  into 
his  share  of  the  benefit,  while  if  he  intends 
to  leave  the  farm  soon  he  may  not.  There 
is  in  the  mind  of  the  writer  a  pros- 
perous tenant  who,  after  eighteen  years 
on  a  single  farm,  declared  he  had  no  desire 
to  make  a  change,  and  doubtless  there  are 
thousands  of  similar  instances. 

Under  the  plan  in  which  the  tenant  fur- 
nishes everything  except  the  real  estate,  the 
tendency  of  the  farm  is  apt  to  be  downward 
both  as  to  the  improvements  and  the  crop- 
producing  power  of  the  soil.  The  interests 
of  the  landlord  and  tenant  are  not  mutual. 
This  condition  of  tenancy  leads  to  growing 
only  those  crops  which  can  be  readily  sold 
from  the  farm  and  to  frequent  changes  of 
the  tenant,  with  its  accompanying  auction 
sales  of  property.  In  one  region,  where 
this  system  prevails,  it  has  been  facetiously 
remarked  that  each  tenant  has  a  sale  every 
year  to  determine  how  much  he  is  worth. 
It  is  less  trouble  than  taking  an  inventory. 

In  the  second  form  of  share  rent,  the  in- 

24 


MEANS  OF  ACQUIRING  LAND 

terests  of  landlord  and  tenant  are  more 
nearly  mutual.  Under  this  system,  animal 
husbandry  is  possible,  which,  generally, 
involves  pasturing  and  feeding  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  crops  upon  the  farm,  and 
even  the  purchase  of  nitrogenous  by- 
products. All  this  leads  to  permanency  of 
tenant,  since  the  landlord  and  tenant  are 
both  interested  in  the  live  stock  and  other 
personal  property,  which  cannot  be  divided, 
with  economy,  each  year.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  the  house  is  the  least  likely  to  be 
kept  in  repair.  The  improvement  of  the 
barns  and  fences  or  the  laying  of  tile  drains 
increases  the  landlord's  income,  but  he  has 
no  financial  interest  in  the  house,  so  long  as 
the  tenant  is  willing  to  live  in  it. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  variations  in 
the  arrangement  of  details  between  the  land- 
lord and  tenant.  On  many  dairy  farms  in 
the  northeastern  states  it  is  customary  for 
the  landlord  to  own  the  cows.  While  the 
landlord  and  tenant  share  equally  from  the 
sale  of  milk,  butter  or  cheese,  in  such  cases 
the  increase  in  the  herd  belongs  to  the 

25 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

owner  of  the  land.  Hence,  money  from  the 
sale  of  any  animal,  old  or  young,  goes  to 
him.  This  is  because  the  landlord  must 
keep  up  the  herd.  If  a  cow  is  sold,  he  must 
furnish  another  to  take  her  place. 

(c)  The  third  type  of  tenant  farming  is 
where  the  tenant  furnishes  nothing  but  his 
labor  and  managerial  ability,  and  receives 
a  share  of  the  sales,  which  may  be  one-third. 
This  is  rather  an  unusual  type  of  tenancy, 
since,  where  the  landlord  furnishes  all  the 
capital,  it  is  much  more  common  to  employ 
a  farm  manager  at  a  monthly  wage.  The 
wage  varies  greatly,  but  is  seldom  below 
forty  dollars  or  above  seventy-five  dollars 
per  month  without  board,  especially  to 
those  who  have  not  hitherto  had  much 
managerial  experience. 

Various  attempts  at  profit  sharing  have 
been  made.  A  recent  instance  is  of  a  young 
married  man  taking  160  acres  of  tillable 
land  where  the  landlord  has  a  fairly  well- 
stocked  farm.  The  young  man  is  to  have  a 
house  and  everything  in  the  way  of  living 
the  farm  can  furnish.  He  is  to  receive  $20 
26 


MEANS  OF  ACQUIRING  LAND 

a  month  and  one-half  the  net  proceeds,  or, 
what  is  called  in  Chapter  XI,  the  farm 
income.  In  considering  a  contract  of  this 
kind  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  careful  dis- 
tinction between:  (i)  Gross  sales,  (2)  net 
proceeds,  viz. :  the  gross  sales  less  the  ex- 
penses of  running  the  farm,  and  (3)  profits, 
which  may  be  defined  for  the  purpose  of 
this  discussion  as  the  net  proceeds  less  the 
interest  on  the  investment.* 

Assuming  160  acres  of  land,  all  tillable, 
devoted  to  dairy  farming  in  eastern  United 
States,  gross  sales  may  be  estimated  at  $20 
an  acre,  or  an  annual  gross  income  of  $3,200, 
and  the  net  proceeds  at  $10  an  acre,  or 
$1,600.  Under  these  conditions  the  young 
man's  income  would  be  $240,  received  as 
wages,  plus  $800,  as  his  share  of  the  net 
proceeds,  or  a  total  of  $1,040  a  year. 

Generally  speaking,  probably  a  more 
satisfactory  method,  both  for  landlord  and 
the  farm  manager,  would  be  to  pay  the 
latter  as  nearly  as  may  be  what  his  services 

*Profit  is  sometimes  defined  as  that  part  of  the  product 
which  the  producer  can  consume  without  reducing  his  means 
of  production. 

27 


should  be  worth  and  give  him  in  addition 
one-half  the  profits;  that  is,  one-half  of  that 
which  was  left  after  deducting  the  expenses 
of  running  the  farm  and  interest  on  the  cap- 
ital invested. 

Merely  for  illustrating  the  method  of 
calculation,  let  us  assume  this  farm  with  its 
equipment  to  be  worth  $100  an  acre,  or 
$16,000.  Let  the  farm  manager  be  paid 
$840  a  year.  Assume  the  same  gross  in- 
come, $3,200,  and  the  same  cost  of  operat- 
ing, $1,600,  to  which  add  $600,  the  addi- 
tional salary  of  the  manager.  The  total 
expense  is  then  $2,200,  and  the  net  proceeds 
$  1,000.  If  4%,  or  $640,  was  charged  on  the 
investment,  there  would  be  $360  to  be 
divided  between  landlord  and  manager, 
making  the  salary  of  manager  $1,020.  A 
simple  calculation  will  show  that  if  $% 
were  charged,  the  salary  of  the  manager 
would  be  $940  a  year,  and  if  6%,  $860  a 
year.  The  advantage  of  the  latter  method 
of  employment  is  that  the  young  man  runs 
less  risk,  while  both  receive  equally  any 
28 


MEANS  OF  ACQUIRING  LAND 

surplus  beyond  fair  wages  and  fair  interest 
on  the  investment. 

In  this  connection  it  is  important  to  con- 
sider how  much  may  be  reasonably  paid  for 
managerial  ability.  A  study  of  the  figures 
on  page  133  will  show  that  the  labor  income 
from  a  considerable  number  of  farms  of  the 
better  class  was  about  7%  of  the  capital 
invested  in  the  farms.  The  inference  is, 
therefore,  that  if  a  man  has  $10,000  wisely 
invested  in  a  farm  he  may  pay  $700  for  a 
working  manager;  or,  to  put  it  in  another 
form,  before  the  owner  of  a  farm  can  afford 
to  pay  $1,200  a  year  for  a  farm  manager, 
he  should  have  about  $17,000  invested. 
Moreover,  this  investment  must  be  in  a  form 
calculated  to  return  an  income.  If  part  of 
it  consists  of  investments  for  pleasure  or 
fancy,  such  investment  will  not  only  not  add 
to  the  income,  but  will  detract  from  it  by 
increasing  the  cost  of  maintenance. 

This  is  scarcely  less  important  to  the  em- 
ployee than  it  is  to  the  employer,  since  if 
the  owner  pays  a  higher  salary  than  the 
manager  can  earn,  he  quite  surely  will 
29 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

sooner  or  later  discharge  his  manager.  This 
may  result  disastrously  for  the  discharged 
young  man,  not  merely  on  account  of  the 
loss  of  employment,  but  because  his  failure 
may  militate  against  his  securing  satisfac- 
tory employment  elsewhere.  When  an  em- 
ployer is  seeking  a  man,  he  looks  for  one 
who  has  succeeded.  There  is  an  old  saying, 
"Nothing  succeeds  like  success,"  and  it  is 
only  too  true  that  nothing  fails  like  failure. 


CHAPTER  III 
FARM  ORGANIZATION 

IN  the  last  chapter  were  discussed  the 
most  common  methods  by  which  a  young 
man  acquires  an  opportunity  to  engage  in 
farming.  This  chapter  will  discuss  some 
less  common  arrangements  by  which  may  be 
bridged  that  period  between  the  time  the 
son  is  ready  to  go  into  the  business  and  the 
time  he  may  assume  the  complete  control 
of  the  ancestral  or  other  farm.  It  will  also 
suggest  a  method  for  the  continuous  business 
management  of  a  farm  enterprise. 

As  stated,  the  most  common  reason  for  a 
farm  changing  from  one  family  to  another 
is  the  fact  that  no  heir  is  willing  to  assume 
the  obligation  which  is  involved  in  paying 
for  the  interest  of  the  other  heirs.  Con- 
nected with  this  problem  is  the  further  fact 
that  the  father  is  not  usually  ready  to  give 
up  the  management  of  the  farm  at  the  time 
one  of  his  sons  reaches  the  age  to  go  into 
active  business. 

31 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

The  reason  for  this  state  of  affairs  is  made 
clear  by  the  results  of  insurance  statistics. 
The  period  that  a  man  may  be  expected  to 
live  can  be  obtained  by  taking  the  difference 
between  his  present  age  and  90  and  dividing 
the  remainder  by  two.  Thus,  a  young  man 
who  is  20  may  reasonably  expect  to  live  35 
years,  or  until  he  is  55  years  old.  A  man  at 
50,  however,  still  has  an  expectation  of  life 
of  20  years,  and  the  man  of  70  of  10  years. 

A  farmer  of  50  will  usually  have  one  or 
more  sons  ready  to  go  to  farming  if  they 
ever  expect  to  engage  in  farming.  But,  as 
has  been  shown,  a  man  of  50  has  a  reason- 
able expectation  of  20  more  years  of  life  and 
cannot  turn  over  the  farm  to  his  son,  com- 
pletely, without  destroying  his  own  oppor- 
tunity for  earning  a  livelihood.  As  things 
are  usually  arranged,  therefore,  there  is  no 
place  on  the  average  farm  for  the  son,  except 
as  a  hired  hand,  which  is  not  desired  per- 
manently by  either  father  or  son. 

Frequently  the  father  fails  to  appreciate 
the  earning  power  of  his  son,  and,  what  is 
more  important,  that  the  boy  has  grown 
32 


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FARM  ORGANIZATION 

into  a  man.  One  day  a  teacher  called  a 
student  of  agriculture  to  his  office,  when 
the  following  conversation  occurred: 

"The  Bureau  of  Soils  at  Washington," 
said  the  teacher,  "has  asked  me  to  recom- 
mend several  of  our  students  to  them  for 
positions  as  field  assistants.  If  you  desire 
to  have  me  do  so,  I  would  be  glad  to 
recommend  you  for  one  of  these  positions. 
The  compensation  is  $1,000  a  year  and  field 
expenses." 

"I  do  not  believe  that  I  can  accept,"  said 
Mr.  Manning,  "my  father  is  in  poor  health 
and  needs  my  help  on  the  farm." 

"Does  your  father  want  you  to  take 
charge  of  the  farm  and  manage  it  so  that 
you  can  make  your  training  count?" 

"No;  my  father  expects  to  continue  to 
manage  the  farm.  He  wishes  me  to  work 
for  him." 

"How  much  does  your  father  expect  to 
pay  you?" 

"Thirty  dollars  a  month." 

The  teacher  found  it  extremely  difficult 
not  to  interfere,  but  he  merely  said,  "This 

33 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

is  a  case  of  filial  duty  which  you  must  settle 
for  yourself.  I  must  have  nothing  further 
to  say." 

The  young  man  returned  to  the  ancestral 
home  and  is  probably  still  there.  It  is,  of 
course,  impossible  to  determine  the  merits 
of  an  individual  case,  but  this  incident  rep- 
resents a  type  of  cases  where  the  son  makes 
two  important  sacrifices  from  the  sense  of 
duty. 

First,  he  sacrifices  present,  and,  perhaps, 
future  opportunity  to  earn  the  wages  of 
which  he  is  capable  and  to  which  he  is 
justly  entitled.  And,  second,  and  more  im- 
portant, he  sacrifices  the  opportunity  to 
develop  his  own  powers  and  make  concrete 
his  own  abstract  self. 

There  are  two  things  that  every  young 
man  should  do.  One  is  to  earn  a  living.  A 
man  that  cannot  or  does  not  earn  a  living  is 
of  no  value  to  himself  or  to  anyone  else. 
The  other  is  to  develop  within  himself  his 
latent  possibilities.  He  must  apply  himself 
to  some  problem,  or  problems,  and  through 
them  develop  his  own  personality.  There 

34 


FARM  ORGANIZATION 

is  no  place  where  more  intricate  and  satis- 
fying problems  may  be  found  than  in  the 
development  of  a  successful  farming  enter- 
prise. In  the  instance  cited,  the  father  may 
have  been  unable  to  pay  his  son  the  wage  he 
might  have  obtained  elsewhere,  but  he  did 
not  need  to  dwarf  his  son's  development  by 
treating  him  merely  as  a  hired  hand.  His 
willingness  to  do  so  was  probably  due  to  his 
failure  to  appreciate  that  his  son  had  be- 
come a  man. 

Sometimes  a  father  is  astute  enough  to 
reorganize  his  business  so  as  to  retain  a 
place  for  himself  while  giving  to  his  sons 
that  opportunity  which  every  man  must 
have  who  develops  himself  normally. 

An  Ohio  farmer  once  came  to  the  Dean's 
office.  He  had  a  son  in  college  who  was 
just  completing  the  first  year  of  a  two  years' 
course  in  agriculture. 

"I  should  like  to  have  you  find  a  place 
for  my  son  in  a  cheese  factory  during  the 
coming  summer,"  said  Mr.  McKinley. 

"I  own  a  farm  of  130  acres  on  which  I 
have  a  herd  of  Jersey  cattle,"  continued  the 

35 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

father.  "I  have  two  sons  and  one  daughter. 
I  would  like  to  have  my  sons  about  me,  but 
there  is  no  place  for  them  on  my  farm  be- 
cause I  am  there  and  cannot  get  away.  In 
fact,  I  do  not  desire  to  give  up  the  manage- 
ment of  the  farm  and  the  development  of 
the  herd  of  cattle." 

"Not  every  father  sees  the  situation  as 
clearly  as  you  do,"  interjected  the  Dean. 

"This  is  my  plan.  After  my  son  has  spent 
a  summer  in  a  cheese  factory,  I  want  him 
to  come  back  to  your  school  for  another 
year.  I  want  him  to  learn,  especially,  all 
you  teach  about  dairying.  I  will  then  build  a 
cheese  factory  on  my  own  farm  and  my  son 
will  make  into  cheese  the  milk  of  my  own 
herd,  and  also  from  the  herds  of  our  neigh- 
bors. By  the  time  he  has  completed  his 
work  with  you,  my  younger  son  will  have 
finished  the  high  school.  He  has  some  lik- 
ing for  trading,  and  he  will  sell  the  cheese 
at  wholesale  and  deliver  it  to  the  surround- 
ing towns  where  markets  are  unexcelled. 
As  for  the  daughter,"  continued  this  prac- 

36 


tical  man,  "she  will  get  married  and  that 
will  take  care  of  her." 

What  became  of  the  daughter  is  not 
known  to  the  writer,  but  the  rest  of  the  pro- 
gram was  carried  out  successfully  and  con- 
tinued for  many  years. 

A  German  came  to  this  country  and  set- 
tled in  New  Jersey,  where  he  established  a 
large  orchard.  In  course  of  time  his  two 
sons  grew  into  manhood.  While,  of  course, 
requiring  plenty  of  laborers,  the  orchard- 
ist  did  not  need  the  sonsvin  the  management 
of  his  farm.  He,  therefore,  established  one 
of  these  sons  in  the  commission  business  in 
Philadelphia,  thus,  at  least,  keeping  the 
profits  on  the  sale  of  the  products  of  his 
orchard  in  the  family.  He  also  needed  cold 
storage  for  his  fruit.  The  other  son  started 
a  cold  storage  plant,  which  plays  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  profitable  management  of 
the  orchard.  Thus  both  sons  have  inde- 
pendent employment  requiring  managerial 
ability  and  the  orchard  is  much  more  profit- 
able than  it  otherwise  would  be. 

Our  land  laws,  our  traditions  and  our 

37 


practices  are  based  upon  the  idea  that  a  farm 
is  to  provide  activity  and  support  for  but  one 
family.  In  order,  therefore,  that  the  son 
may  marry  and  begin  to  develop  his  life  in 
his  own  way,  it  is  essential  to  reorganize  in 
some  manner  the  method  of  managing  the 
farm  or  to  enlarge  or,  perhaps,  specialize 
its  activities.  This  may  be  accomplished  on 
a  simple  partnership  basis,  or  it  may  be  in 
some  such  line  as  outlined  in  the  illustra- 
tions which  have  been  given.  In  other  occu- 
pations such  co-operative  effort  is  the  rule 
rather  than  the  exception.  That  it  is  more 
difficult  to  effect  satisfactory  arrangements 
in  farming  must  be  conceded,  else  they 
would  be  more  common.  Doubtless  it  will 
often  tax  the  ingenuity  of  father  and  son  to 
devise  the  plans  best  suited  to  meet  their 
particular  problem. 

There  still  remains  to  consider  another 
form  of  business  relation  as  applied  to 
farming  which  has  become  almost  universal 
in  trade  and  transportation.  The  following 
incident  may  illustrate  and  emphasize  the 
problem  better  than  abstract  discussion: 

38 


FARM  ORGANIZATION 

One  day  a  man  walked  into  an  office  and 
stated  that  a  friend  had  a  half  million  dol- 
lars to  invest  in  farming,  provided  that  he 
could  be  convinced  that  the  money  would 
be  invested  profitably. 

"Does  your  friend  desire  to  buy  land  in 
any  particular  locality?" 

"Yes,"  replied  the  promoter,  "he  wishes 

to  buy  land  near .  He  has  some 

sentiment  about  it.  He  was  born  in  that 
neighborhood." 

"Well,  that  is  a  rather  bad  beginning. 
Farming  on  sentiment  is  dangerous,  espe- 
cially when  the  sentiment  is  in  no  way  re- 
lated to  the  business." 

The  facts  were  that  the  region  indicated 
was  recognized  to  be  one  of  the  most 
unpromising  sections  of  the  state. 

"If  you  undertake  to  invest  a  half  million 
dollars  in  one  neighborhood,"  continued  the 
adviser,  "you  will  pretty  certainly  fail  to 
earn  interest  on  your  investment." 

"Why?"  inquired  the  promoter. 

"Before  you  could  possibly  buy  any  con- 
siderable part  of  the  land  the  owners  of  the 

39 


THE  YOUNG   FARMER 

farms  you  desire  to  buy  would  have 
doubled  or  perhaps  trebled  the  price  asked 
for  their  holdings.  It  is  one  "thing  to  earn 
interest  on  an  investment  of  $30  an  acre  and 
quite  another  to  earn  an  equal  per  cent  on 
$60  or  $90  an  acre. 

"In  the  second  place,  farmers  are  content 
to  accept  less  per  cent  on  their  capital  than 
they  would  if  it  was  loaned  at  interest, 
because  the  farm  furnishes  a  home  as  well 
as  a  business.  When  you  buy  up  all  these 
farms  and  convert  them  into  a  single  enter- 
prise you  will  destroy  their  home  value. 
You  cannot  hope  to  compete  with  the  man, 
who,  because  his  farm  furnishes  him  a 
home,  is  content  with  an  otherwise  small 
return  on  his  investment." 

There  were  other  reasons,  of  course,  why 
such  an  enterprise  would  fail,  which  the 
speaker  did  not  stop  to  explain. 

"You  are  mistaken,"  challenged  the 
promoter.  "I  intend  to  meet  both  your 
objections.  My  plan  is  to  form  a  corpora- 
tion and  issue  both  preferred  and  common 
stock.  The  preferred  stock  shall  bear  5% 
40 


FARM  ORGANIZATION 

and  that  will  belong  to  my  friend  who  fur- 
nishes the  money.  I  will  retain  the  common 
stock.  Five  per  cent  is  all  the  owner  of  the 
money  is  entitled  to,  while  if  the  business 
returns  more  than  that  amount,  it  will  be 
due  to  my  management.  I,  and  those  asso- 
ciated with  me,  are  entitled  to  all  that  is 
made  above  five  per  cent.  By  retaining  the 
common  stock  the  surplus  income  will  come 
to  us.  Neither  will  I  destroy  the  home 
value,  because  I  shall  associate  the  former 
owners  with  me  in  the  conduct  of  the  estate 
and  may  give  them  some  of  the  common 
stock,  so  that  they  will  be  interested  with  me 
in  making  a  profitable  return.  If  they  wish 
to  keep  their  money  invested  in  the  farm, 
they  will  be  given  preferred  stock  in  place 
of  cash  for  their  farms." 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  promoter 
never  convinced  his  friend  that  he  could 
successfully  invest  for  him  a  half  million 
dollars  along  the  lines  indicated.  Never- 
theless the  corporate  plan  is  not  without 
merit.  For  example,  if  a  father  should  in- 
corporate his  farm,  he  could  provide  for 

41 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

the  inheritance  of  the  preferred  stock, 
among  the  heirs,  as  he  desires.  He  could 
give  to  the  son  who  operates  the  farm  all 
the  common  stock,  together  with  what  pre- 
ferred stock  he  is  entitled  or  the  father  may 
desire  him  to  have.  The  common  stock 
would  provide  the  means  by  which  the 
income  from  the  farm,  which  was  due  to 
the  son's  skill  and  management,  might  go 
to  him.  As  time  went  on  the  son  could 
acquire  additional  preferred  stock  from  the 
father  or  other  heirs,  or  he  could  invest  his 
earnings  elsewhere,  as  might  seem  most  ex- 
pedient. On  the  death  of  the  parents,  the 
preferred  stock  would  be  distributed  as 
inheritance  or  the  will  provided  without  in 
any  way  interfering  with  the  continuity  of 
the  farm  enterprise.  If  at  any  time  the  son 
desired  to  discontinue  the  management  of 
the  farm,  all  he  would  need  to  do  would  be 
to  dispose  of  his  interest  in  the  common 
stock  at  whatever  he  might  be  able  to  secure 
from  the  man  who  succeeded  to  its  manage- 
ment. He  could  sell  or  retain  his  preferred 
stock. 

42 


FARM  ORGANIZATION 

Farming  is  the  one  remaining  great 
industry  that  has  not  been  organized  so  that 
a  single  enterprise  may  have  a  continuous 
existence.  A  corporation  never  dies,  but  at 
least  three  generations  of  men  occupy  the 
farms  of  the  United  States  each  century. 


43 


CHAPTER  IV 

OPPORTUNITIES     IN     AGRICUL- 
TURE 

SOME  years  ago,  a  prominent  magazine 
contained  an  article  entitled  "The 
American  Farmer's  Balance  Sheet,"  in 
which  a  descendant  of  the  second  and  sixth 
Presidents  of  the  United  States  was  shown 
to  have  made  in  one  year  a  profit  of  over 
$19,000  from  a  6,ooo-acre  wheat  farm  in 
North  Dakota,  and  over  $50,000  from  a 
6,ooo-acre  corn  farm  in  Iowa.  A  few 
months  later  there  appeared  in  the  same 
magazine  another  article,  the  purport  of 
which  was  that  great  wealth,  whether  it  be 
obtained  from  farming,  the  mining  of  coal, 
the  manufacture  of  steel  or  the  selling  of 
merchandise,  is  the  exception,  while  the 
man,  in  whatever  calling,  who  rears  and 
educates  a  family  and  at  the  same  time  lays 
by  a  small  competence  is  the  normal  Amer- 
ican product.  The  moral  is  that  a  $500- 
a-year-income  farm  is  a  more  important 

44 


OPPORTUNITIES  IN  AGRICULTURE 

factor  to  the  national  welfare  than  a 
$5O,oooa-year-income  farm. 

In  the  latter  article  the  writer  tells  of  two 
brothers  who  had  been  reared  on  a  Michi- 
gan farm.  Reuben  was  tired  of  the  coun- 
try. He  went  to  the  city  and  apprenticed 
himself  to  a  harnessmaker.  Against  the 
advice  of  young  friends,  Lucien  bought 
sixty  acres  of  land  and  ran  in  debt  for  it. 

In  a  year  Reuben  was  earning  a  dollar  a 
day.  He  wore  a  white  shirt  and  pointed 
shoes,  not  because  they  were  more  com- 
fortable, but  because  other  people  did.  He 
had  no  debts.  Lucien  had  fair  crops,  but 
they  yielded  no  more  than  enough  to  pay 
interest  on  the  mortgage.  He  wore  a  ragged 
shirt,  patched  breeches  and  cowhide  boots. 
People  said  that  Reuben  was  making  a  gen- 
tleman of  himself  and  learning  a  trade  in 
the  bargain. 

In  two  years,  Reuben  had  completed  his 
apprenticeship.  He  was  now  earning  $10 
a  week.  He  lived  in  a  house  that  had  a 
fancy  veranda  and  green  blinds.  His  cloth- 
ing improved.  Lucien  was  still  ragged,  but 

45 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

he  paid  his  interest  and  $300  each  year  upon 
the  principal.  People  said  that  Reuben, 
the  harnessmaker,  was  bound  to  come  to  the 
front. 

In  ten  years  more,  Reuben  was  still  fore- 
man of  the  shop  at  $50  a  month.  He  lived 
in  the  same  house,  and  smoked  Havana 
cigars.  Lucien  built  a  new  house  and  a 
barn.  He  smoked  a  pipe.  The  neighbors 
saw  that  every  year  he  made  some  improve- 
ment on  the  farm.  He  wore  a  white  shirt 
when  he  went  to  town,  and  he  had  a  pair 
of  button  shoes.  People  said  that  Lucien 
was  becoming  a  prominent  man.  His  word 
was  good  at  the  bank. 

Reuben  began  to  complain  that  harness- 
making  was  too  confining.  His  health  was 
breaking  down.  The  proprietor  was  selfish. 
He  would  not  die  and  leave  the  business  to 
him.  Harnessmaking  was  not  what  it  used 
to  be.  Lucien  bought  more  land.  He  went 
fishing  when  he  wanted  to.  Reuben  came 
out  now  and  then  to  spend  Sunday.  The 
birds  seemed  to  sing  more  sweetly  than  ever 


OPPORTUNITIES  IN  AGRICULTURE 

before  and  the  grass  was  greener.  Lucien 
endorsed  Reuben's  note. 

Lucien  has  pigs,  and  cows,  and  sheep,  and 
chickens,  and  turkeys,  and  horses.  He  raises 
potatoes  and  beans,  and  corn,  and  wheat, 
and  garden  stuff,  and  fruit.  He  buys  his 
groceries  and  clothing  and  tobacco.  Reuben 
buys  everything.  At  the  close  of  the  year 
Lucien  puts  from  $100  to  $300  in  the  bank 
or  takes  a  trip  to  Washington.  Reuben  does 
well  if  he  come  out  even.  Lucien  does  not 
fret;  Reuben  grumbles. 

The  picture  is  true  to  life.  It  has  been 
enacted  and  re-enacted  in  every  one  of  the 
older  communities  of  the  United  States. 

It  has  always  seemed  to  the  writer,  how- 
ever, that  the  author  of  this  suggestive  story 
left  out  two  important  personages.  They 
were  Sarah,  the  wife  of  Reuben,  and  Mary, 
the  wife  of  Lucien.  Sarah  liked  to  make 
tatting  and  to  go  to  pink  teas.  Mary  pre- 
ferred to  raise  flowers  and  fluffy  little 
chickens.  Nothing  is  to  be  said  for  or 
against  the  taste  of  either.  Each  has  a  right 
to  her  preference,  but  their  point  of  view 

47 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

cannot  be  left  out  of  the  problem  when  a 
young  man  is  considering  his  future  occupa- 
tion. 

It  has  been  said,  and  probably  with  con- 
siderable truth,  that  most  congressmen 
would  not  hang  around  Washington  if  it 
were  not  for  their  wives. 

No  one  must  mistake  this  story  as  an 
attempt  to  compare  harness  making  with 
farming,  much  less  to  compare  living  in  the 
city  with  life  in  the  open  country. 

What  it  does  is  to  compare  the  struggle 
and  the  development  of  the  man  who  goes 
into  business  for  himself  with  the  man  who 
accepts  employment  at  wages. 

Because  of  less  responsibility  and  less 
sacrifices  at  the  beginning,  the  tendency  is 
for  young  men  to  work  for  wages  rather 
than  to  engage  in  business  for  themselves. 
This  is  becoming  more  and  more  true  as  in- 
dustrial methods  make  it  more  and  more 
difficult  for  the  young  man  to  command  the 
requisite  capital. 

The  man  who  works  for  wages  usually 
has  the  larger  income  and  appears  the  most 


OPPORTUNITIES  IN  AGRICULTURE 

prosperous  during  the  earlier  years  as  com- 
pared with  his  brother  who  enters  business. 
The  business  man,  however,  who,  while 
young,  economizes  and  invests  his  savings 
in  his  business  gradually  outstrips  his  wage- 
earning  brother.  During  later  life  he  is 
able  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  earlier 
economy  and  investments,  while  failing 
powers  and  keen  competition  of  younger 
and  better  trained  men  restrict  the  oppor- 
tunities of  the  wage  earner,  who  has  gen- 
erally spent  his  wages  in  better  living,  or  at 
least  in  more  outward  show. 

This  is  well  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  is 
customary  to  make  provision  by  means  of 
pensions  for  wage  earners  of  all  sorts,  while 
no  such  arrangement  is  made  for  men  who 
engage  in  business,  be  that  farming,  trade  or 
transportation. 

For  many  reasons,  however,  young  men 
will  continue  to  seek  employment  at  wages, 
even  if  only  for  a  few  years,  or  until  some 
capital  has  been  acquired  which  may  be 
invested  in  business. 

The  question  arises,  therefore,  what  op- 

49 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

portunities  there  may  be  for  the  young  man 
who  desires  to  engage,  eventually,  in  the 
business  of  farming  to  work  for  wages  along 
lines  that  will  not  be  too  far  removed  from 
the  business  in  which  he  is  subsequently  to 
engage.  It  will  be  assumed  that  the  young 
man  has  prepared  himself  in  that  same 
painstaking  way  that  he  would  if  he  were 
preparing  to  become  an  engineer,  a  lawyer 
or  a  physician. 

There  is  a  constant  demand  for  men  with 
proper  training  as  managers  of  farms.  As 
stated  elsewhere,  the  wages  are  seldom  less 
than  $40  nor  more  than  $75  a  month  to  be- 
ginners, although  for  men  of  experience 
$5,000  a  year  has  been  paid  in  exceptional 
cases  for  the  management  of  large  enter- 
prises. These  positions  often  constitute  ideal 
opportunities  for  capable  young  men.  They 
require,  however,  not  only  an  intimate 
knowledge  of  farming,  but  the  ability,  also, 
to  manage  men. 

The  ability  to  manage  men  requires  the 
combination  of  decision  and  tact,  not  pos- 
sessed by  all,  and  not  easily  acquired  by 

50 


OPPORTUNITIES  IN  AGRICULTURE 

education  or  practice.  Not  only  must  the 
farm  manager  be  able  to  manage  workmen, 
but  oftentimes  he  must  manage  his  em- 
ployer, who  may  have  little  knowledge  of 
farming  but  still  insists  upon  having  his 
own  ideas  executed,  as  he,  of  course,  has  a 
perfect  right  to  do. 

Another  danger  is  the  fact  that  where  the 
farm  is  owned  by  a  man  engaged  in  other 
business,  many  circumstances  may  arise  to 
cause  the  owner  to  change  his  plans  or  sell 
his  property.  There  is  often,  therefore,  a 
lack  of  permanency  in  these  positions. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture employs  upward  of  5,000  people. 
There  is  a  constant  demand  for  young  men 
to  recruit  this  service,  including  experts  in 
soils,  plant  production,  animal  husbandry, 
dairying,  chemistry  and  forestry.  Beginners 
receive  from  $800  to  $1,000  a  year.  When 
they  are  sent  out  of  Washington  into  field 
service,  as  many  of  them  are,  they  receive 
their  expenses,  including  subsistence  in 
addition.  Young  men  may  rise  rather 
rapidly  by  promotion  to  $1,600  a  year,  then 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

more  slowly  to  $2,000,  while  an  occasional 
man  is  promoted  to  the  more  responsible 
position  paying  $3,000  to  $4,000  a  year. 

The  positions  are  all  filled  through  the 
competitive  civil  service  examinations.  Ex- 
aminations are  held  at  more  or  less  irregular 
intervals,  usually  several  times  a  year,  in 
various  sections  of  the  country.  A  letter 
addressed  to  the  United  States  Civil  Service 
Commission  will  secure  the  necessary  in- 
formation concerning  openings  and  the 
general  requirements  for  the  examinations. 

Employment  in  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  often  affords  oppor- 
tunity for  varied  experience  and  wide 
observation  of  farming  methods  throughout 
the  country.  Such  employment  is  generally 
to  be  considered  desirable  if  not  continued 
for  too  long  a  period.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
men  are  constantly  leaving  the  service  to 
engage  in  practical  or  other  work,  a  fact 
which  makes  the  demand  for  young  men 
greater  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case. 

The  various  agricultural  colleges  and 
experiment  stations  are  constantly  seeking 
52 


OPPORTUNITIES  IN  AGRICULTURE 

men.  It  would  seem  that  the  demand  would 
eventually  be  satisfied.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
however,  it  grows  greater  year  by  year, 
both  because  these  institutions  continue  to 
grow  and  because  young  men  are  attracted 
more  and  more  to  practical  work.  It  is 
stated  that  in  one  institution  there  were  46 
graduates  in  the  course  in  animal  husbandry 
and  that  44  went  into  practical  work  and 
only  two  sought  employment  in  college  or 
station.  The  salaries  are  about  the  same  as 
in  government  positions. 

Agricultural  newspaper  work  offers  an 
attractive  field  for  young  men  who  are 
properly  trained  and  have  a  taste  for  this 
kind  of  work. 

There  is  also  beginning  to  be  quite  a  de- 
mand for  teachers  of  agriculture  in  the  high 
schools.  As  a  rule  a  man  is  wanted  who 
can  teach,  in  addition,  the  sciences  usually 
taught  in  secondary  school.  The  customary 
salary  is  from  $70  to  $100  a  month  on  an 
eight  to  ten  months'  basis.  An  experience 
of  one  or  two  years  as  a  teacher  in  a  high 
school,  or  even  the  lower  grades  of  the  pub- 

53 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

lie  school,  should  be  invaluable  to  the  young 
man  who  expects  subsequently  to  engage  in 
farming.  This  is  particularly  true  if  he  has 
not  had  the  opportunity  of  a  college 
training. 

It  is,  perhaps,  unnecessary  to  state  that 
the  salaries  mentioned  in  this  chapter  are 
obtained  only  by  young  men  who  possess 
certain  qualifications.  To  secure  them,  they 
must  be  men  of  ability,  integrity,  virtue  and 
industry.  No  man  who  is  not  willing  to 
make  the  preparation  necessary  to  master 
his  subject  can  expect  to  succeed.  He  must, 
also,  be  a  man  of  absolute  honesty,  and  he 
must  lead  a  clean  life.  It  was  Bismarck  who 
said,  of  German  university  students,  "One- 
third  die  out;  one-third  rot  out;  the  other 
third  rule  Germany."  Every  man  who  will 
may  choose  whether  he  will  belong  to 
Bismarck's  second  or  third  class. 

The  question  for  the  young  man  of  20  is 
not  merely  as  to  the  morrow,  but  what  is 
likely  to  be  the  trend  of  events  during  the 
next  35  to  50  years. 

"In    1800    the    United    States    nowhere 

54 


OPPORTUNITIES  IN  AGRICULTURE 

crossed  the  Mississippi  and  nowhere 
touched  the  Gulf  of  Mexico."  In  1850  the 
country  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  was 
agriculturally  largely  an  undiscovered 
region.  Since  1870  we  have  much  more 
than  doubled  our  population  and  our  agri- 
culture. Since  that  time  we  have  subdued 
more  of  the  open  country  to  the  uses  of  man 
than  we  had  been  able  to  do  in  250  years  of 
our  previous  history. 

During  the  past  300  years  we  have  prided 
ourselves  upon  being  an  agricultural  peo- 
ple. We  have  been  an  agricultural  people, 
but  our  problems  have  not  been  chiefly 
those  of  the  agriculturist,  but  those  of  the 
engineer. 

Our  problem,  in  the  past,  has  not  been  to 
make  two  blades  of  grass  to  grow  where  but 
one  grew  before.  Our  problem  has  been  to 
harvest  and  transport  two  bushels  of  wheat 
or  two  bales  of  cotton  with  the  labor  pre- 
viously required  to  harvest  one.  Our  crops 
have  been  so  abundant  that  the  agricultural 
problems  connected  with  the  growing  of 
them  has  been  secondary  to  the  engineering 

55 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

problems  of  their  harvesting  and  transpor- 
tation. The  self-binder  and  the  steam  loco- 
motive have  been  our  achievements. 

If  the  writer  mistakes  not,  the  future 
problem  will  not  be  so  much  the  harvesting 
and  transporting,  as  the  growth  of  the  crops. 
In  the  future,  young  men  will  be  needed 
who  have  studied  the  science  of  living  things 
in  order  that  they  may  make,  literally,  two 
blades  of  grass  to  grow  where  but  one  grew. 
To  men  who  will  be  able  to  do  so,  will  come 
success  and  honor. 


CHAPTER  V 
WHERE  TO   LOCATE 

UNLESS  the  young  farmer  expects  to 
return  to  the  ancestral  home,  the  first 
question  he  must  settle  is  where  he  is  going 
to  locate.  Indeed,  one  of  the  most  common 
questions  asked  is,  What  do  you  think  of 
this  state  or  that  state  or  this  region  or  that 
as  a  place  to  farm?  There  are  few 
questions  harder  to  answer.  This  is  due, 
among  other  reasons,  to  the  fact  that  every 
place  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages. 
The  sum  of  the  advantages  may  be  greater 
in  one  place  than  in  another,  but  if  these 
advantages  are  known  they  must  generally 
be  paid  for. 

New  adaptations,  however,  may  change 
materially  the  value  of  the  land  in  a  given 
locality  as,  for  example,  the  discovery  that 
a  region  is  especially  adapted  to  raising 
alfalfa,  onions,  cabbages,  apples  or  peaches. 
Changing  conditions,  as  the  growth  of  popu- 
lation or  better  transportation  facilities,  may 

57 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

materially  affect  the  attractiveness  of  a  re- 
gion from  the  standpoint  of  the  farmer. 

The  competition  of  other  regions  which 
grow  similar  crops  is  a  potent  factor  in 
determining  the  desirability  of  a  region. 
For  example,  the  farmers  east  of  the  Alle- 
gheny mountains  during  the  nineteenth 
century  competed  with  the  farmers  of  the 
central  West  who  had  free,  fertile,  easily 
tilled  land  on  which  to  grow  maize,  wheat 
and  oats.  Cattle  and  sheep  were  pastured 
on  the  open  range.  The  twentieth  century 
has  found  the  land  of  this  region  settled  and 
capitalized  in  some  instances  beyond  that 
of  the  eastern  states;  thus  one  factor  at  least 
of  competition  has  been  eliminated. 

While  farm  values  readjust  themselves  in 
time,  it  often  happens,  especially  in  the 
older  settled  regions,  that  farm  values  are 
slow  in  reflecting  these  changes  in  economic 
conditions.  Changed  conditions  often  call 
for  a  change  in  farm  methods  which  the 
habits  and  traditions  of  even  one  generation 
prevent.  To  the  man  who  is  able  to  apply 
the  proper  methods  the  region  may  be  a 

58 


WHERE  TO  LOCATE 

desirable  one,  although  under  existing  con- 
ditions the  results  may  be  unsatisfactory. 
The  young  man,  however,  is  cautioned  at 
this  point  not  to  be  overconfident  of  his  own 
ability.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  well 
to  study  the  problem  with  great  care,  be- 
cause the  methods  which  seem  unwise  to  the 
casual  observer  may,  after  all,  be  found  to 
be  based  upon  sound  economic  principles. 

A  man  of  25  who  is  looking  for  a  location 
should  not  only  study  the  present  conditions 
of  the  locality,  but  try  to  predict  what  is 
likely  to  be  the  future  of  the  region  during 
the  next  third  of  a  century,  since  this  is  the 
period  in  which  he  may  reasonably  expect 
to  be  personally  interested,  although  later  in 
life  he  will  find  himself  quite  as  much  in- 
terested in  the  more  distant  future  on 
account  of  his  children. 

Nothing  is  more  self-evident  than  that 
one  should  choose  a  region,  especially  as 
regards  soil  and  climate,  which  is  adapted 
to  the  crop  or  crops  to  be  raised,  yet  there  are 
probably  more  failures  due  to  a  lack  of  crop 
adaptation  than  to  any  other  cause  that  is  not 

59 


THE  YOUNG   FARMER 

personal  to  the  man  himself.  Not  only  do 
apples,  for  their  best  success,  require  cer- 
tain soil  types,  but  different  varieties  of 
apples  require  for  their  best  development, 
distinctly  different  types  of  soil  as,  for  ex- 
ample, Rhode  Island  Greening,  Baldwin, 
York  Imperial  and  Grime's  Golden.  Each 
reaches  its  best  development  on  different 
types  of  soil  and  some  require  different 
climatic  conditions.  In  like  manner  apples 
and  peaches  require  distinctly  different 
types  of  soil  for  the  best  success  of  each  and 
for  this  reason  peaches  are  not  desirable  as 
fillers  in  apple  orchards. 

If  at  the  proper  season  of  the  year  one 
goes  from  Pittsburg  to  Chicago  via  Colum- 
bus and  Indianapolis,  he  will  see  great  fields 
of  winter  wheat  and  a  considerable  number 
of  permanent  pastures.  From  Chicago  to 
Omaha  he  will  see  only  occasionally  a  field 
of  wheat  and  scarcely  any  permanent  pas- 
ture. Oats  have  taken  the  place  of  wheat. 
In  parts  of  Eastern  Kansas  and  Oklahoma 
the  predominant  crop  is  winter  wheat. 
Throughout  the  whole  region  from  Pitts- 
60 


WHERE  TO  LOCATE 

burg  to  Topeka,  Kansas,  the  characteristic 
crop  is  maize  or  Indian  corn.  Between  St. 
Paul  and  Fargo,  the  main  crops  are  spring 
wheat  and  oats.  One  may  travel  from  Win- 
nipeg, Manitoba,  to  Calgary,  Alberta,  a 
distance  of  over  one  thousand  miles  without 
seeing  a  field  of  maize.  In  some  portions 
the  main  crop  is  wheat,  in  others  it  is  oats. 

These  are  illustrations  of  the  crop  adapta- 
tion over  large  areas,  which  has  come  about 
unconsciously,  as  has  most  crop  adaptation. 
In  other  parts  of  the  United  States  are  to  be 
found  even  more  striking  examples  of  crop 
adaptation,  although  the  areas  are  much 
smaller,  as  in  the  case  of  tobacco,  potatoes, 
celery,  onions,  apples,  peaches  and  other 
fruits.  Regions  containing  residual  soils 
are  more  variable  in  crop  adaptation  than 
drift  soils  and  require  more  careful  watch- 
fulness on  the  part  of  those  who  may  wish 
to  buy  land. 

As    previously    stated,     advantages,     if 

known,  must  usually  be  paid  for.    It  comes 

about,  therefore,  that  if  a  region  or  a  farm 

is  adapted  to  the  raising  of  a  certain  crop 

6.1 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

which  is  more  profitable  than  the  average, 
such  as  maize,  tobacco,  alfalfa,  celery,  ap- 
ples or  peaches,  this  land  will,  other  things 
being  equal,  command  a  higher  price  than 
land  which  does  not  possess  this  character- 
istic. 

There  is  an  underlying  economic  prin- 
ciple which  the  man  who  goes  out  to  choose 
a  farm  should  clearly  understand.  The 
principle  has  been  stated  by  Fairchild  as 
follows:  "The  normal  value  of  products 
capable  of  indefinite  multiplication  tends 
always  toward  the  value  of  least  costly.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  any  production  cannot  be 
largely  extended,  so  that  the  supply  barely 
meets  the  requirements  of  the  purchasers, 
the  tendency  of  normal  values  is  toward  the 
cost  of  the  most  costly  part  of  the  product 
required  to  meet  wants." 

This  principle  explains  why  land  espe- 
cially adapted  to  raising  maize  is  higher 
priced  than  land  primarily  adapted  to  rais- 
ing wheat.  Maize  which  enters  into  com- 
merce is  raised  almost  exclusively  in  ten 
states  of  the  United  States.  Wheat  is  har- 
62 


WHERE  TO  LOCATE 

vested  practically  every  month  of  every  year 
in  different  parts  of  the  world.  The  young 
farmer  should  consider,  therefore,  whether 
he  is  undertaking  to  raise  crops  in  which 
there  is  unlimited  competition,  or  whether 
soil  or  other  conditions  cause  the  output  to 
be  relatively  limited. 


T 


CHAPTER  VI 
SIZE  OF  FARM 

HE  size  of  the  farm  is  another  of  those 
questions  on  which  there  is  endless  de- 
bate and  to  which  no  general  answer  can  be 
given.  There  are,  however,  certain  rather 
definite  principles  which  may  help  in 
settling  an  individual  problem. 

The  size  of  the  farm  is  related  to  the  in- 
come per  acre.  If  one's  ideal  or  purpose  is 
a  gross  income  of  $1,000  or  $3,000  or  $5,000 
a  year,  he  must  consider  how  large  a  farm 
will  be  necessary  to  bring  this  return. 

Assume,  for  the  sake  of  discussion,  it  is 
desired  to  obtain  a  gross  income  of  $4,000. 
In  the  eastern  United  States  200  acres  of 
tillable  land  devoted  to  general  farming  may 
bring  this  amount.  If  the  land  is  especially 
adapted  to  potatoes,  and  this  crop  takes  a 
prominent  place  in  the  rotation,  100  acres 
might  be  sufficient  to  return  the  income 
named.  Likewise  a  loo-acre  retail  milk 
dairy  farm  may  produce  a  similar  result. 


SIZE  OF  FARM 

Forty  acres  devoted   to   truck   farming  or 
market  gardening  may  be  sufficient. 

There  is  another  way  that  the  size  of  the 
farm  needed  may  be  estimated.  There  is  a 
general  relation  between  the  gross  income 
and  the  amount  invested.  In  1900  the  gross 
income  of  the  farms  of  the  United  States 
was  1 8  per  cent  of  the  total  investment, 
which  includes  land,  buildings,  tools,  and 
live  stock.  The  average  gross  income  varied 
for  the  different  types  of  farming  common 
to  the  northern  United  States  from  16  to  19 
per  cent.  This  represents,  of  course,  a  great 
deal  of  very  poor  farming.  The  income  of 
prosperous  farmers  must  be  somewhat  better 
than  this.  If  we  assume  that  by  careful 
methods  the  gross  income  is  25%  of  the  total 
investment,  then  an  investment  of  $16,000 
will  be  required  to  bring  a  gross  income  of 
$4,000.  While  it  is  true  that  the  gross  in- 
come has  no  necessary  relation  to  net  in- 
come or  profit,  yet  it  is  well  to  remember 
that  a  gross  income  is  a  necessary  antecedent 
of  a  net  income.  The  net  profit  from  the 
production  of  a  bushel  of  wheat,  a  dozen  of 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

eggs,  or  a  pound  of  butter  is  of  compara- 
tively small  consequence  unless  a  sufficient 
quantity  is  produced. 

A  recent  investigation  by  the  Cornell 
station  appears  to  show  that  with  the  type 
of  farming  now  existing  in  Tompkins  and 
Livingston  counties,  New  York,  where  the 
investigation  chanced  to  be  made,  the  larger 
farms  yielded  the  most  profitable  returns 
and  that  while  present  conditions  exist,  the 
size  of  farms  is  likely  to  increase  rather  than 
decrease.  The  fundamental  reason  seems  to 
be  the  substitution  of  horse-drawn  machin- 
ery for  hand  labor. 

The  following  table  shows  the  labor  in- 
come on  586  farms  operated  by  the  owners, 
classified  according  to  size: 


Number 

Average 

of 

size 

Labor 

Acres 

farms 

(acres) 

income 

30  or  less 

30 

21 

$168 

31  to     60 

108 

49 

254 

61  to  loo 

214 

83 

373 

101  to  150 

143 

124 

436 

151  to  200 

57 

177 

635 

over      200 

34 

261 

946 

Average  103  $415 

While  the  larger  the  farm,  the  more  pros- 
66 


SIZE  OF  FARM 

perous  was  the  operating  owner  or  tenant, 
the  size  of  the  farm  did  not  seem  to  affect 
the  profit  of  the  landlord. 

The  amount  of  land  one  individual  may 
own  is  unlimited ;  the  size  of  the  farm  unit 
is  limited.  After  a  farm  unit  has  reached 
a  certain  size,  depending  upon  the  type  of 
farming,  the  general  arrangement  of  the 
farm  and  the  skill  in  management,  any  fur- 
ther increase  will  increase  the  cost  of  opera- 
tion, and  as  the  increase  continues  eventually 
cause  a  decrease  in  profits.  Assuming  this 
to  be  true,  it  follows  as  a  mathematical  neces- 
sity that  as  the  farm  increases  in  size  the 
total  profits  will  increase  as  the  farm  in- 
creases up  to  a  given  point  and  then  the 
profits  will  decrease.  The  following  table 
illustrates  this  law: 


Size  of 

t  A  x                 ,  B  » 

farm 

Net  profit 

Net  profit 

Net  profit 

Net  profit 

acres 

per  acre 

per  farm 

per  acre 

per  farm 

1  60 

$5.00 

$800 

$5.00 

$800 

zoo 

4.50 

900 

4-75 

950 

240 

4.00 

960 

4.50 

i,  080 

280 

3-5° 

980 

4.25 

1,190 

320 

3.00 

960 

4.00 

1,280 

360 

2.50 

900 

3-75 

1,350 

400 

2.00 

800 

3-50 

1,400 

440 

I.50 

660 

3.25 

1,430 

480 

1.00 

480 

3.00 

1,440 

520 

.50 

260 

2.75 

1,430 

560 

— 

— 

2.50 

1,400 

67 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

In  both  case  A  and  case  B  it  is  assumed 
that  the  greatest  net  profit  per  acre  is  to  be 
obtained  with  160  acres,  and  that  the  net 
profit  per  acre  when  the  farm  is  of  that  size 
is  $5.  In  case  A  it  is  assumed  that  the  net 
profit  would  decrease  $i  for  each  80  acres 
added,  while  in  case  B  the  decrease  is 
assumed  to  be  only  one-half  as  rapid.  In 
the  first  instance  the  net  profit  per  farm  in- 
creases until  280  acres  are  reached,  when 
the  net  profit  per  farm  decreases,  until  at  560 
acres  no  profit  would  be  obtained.  In  case 
B  the  net  profit  per  farm  increases  until  480 
acres  are  reached.  Everyone  is  cautioned 
not  to  accept  these  figures  as  representing 
what  would  actually  happen.  All  that  can 
be  said  is  that  as  the  farm  unit  increases  in 
size  there  will  come  a  point  at  which  the  net 
profit  per  acre  will  decrease  because  of  the 
physical  difficulty  of  managing  a  large  area, 
and,  therefore,  there  is  a  limit  to  the  size  of 
a  single  farm.  Fifteen  thousand  acres  may 
lay  in  one  tract  and  be  owned  by  one  indi- 
vidual, firm  or  corporation,  but  its  economic 
management  requires  for  purely  physical 
68 


SIZE  OF  FARM 

reasons,  not  to  mention  others,  that  it  be 
managed  in  several  units  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct from  one  another.  Just  what  the  size 
of  this  unit  will  be  no  one  knows  and  it  will 
vary  with  the  type  of  farming,  the  type  of 
farmer  and  many  other  circumstances.  For 
example,  a  very  common  unit  for  a  tenant 
cotton  farm  is  between  20  and  50  acres,  both 
the  product  and  the  farmer  being  a  limiting 
factor. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  lesson  to  be 
learned  from  a  study  of  this  table  is  that  it 
is  wise  for  some  men  to  operate  a  farm  of 
320  acres,  others  of  160  acres  and  still  others 
of  80  acres,  because  each  size  of  farm  pre- 
sents a  task  suited  to  different  abilities.  It 
would  be  as  futile  for  one  fitted  to  operate 
only  an  So-acre  farm  to  attempt  to  manage 
320  acres  as  it  would  be  unwise  for  the  man 
capable  of  conducting  320  acres  to  confine 
his  attention  to  80  acres.  Unfortunately 
while  this  principle  is  not  difficult  to  per- 
ceive and  is  easily  stated,  it  is  practically 
impossible  to  make  any  application  of  it  to 
an  individual  case.  Only  time  and  the  in- 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

exorable  laws  of  competition  will  adjust 
men  to  their  several  tasks. 

It  will  be  of  interest  to  note  what  influ- 
ence in  actual  practice  the  type  of  farming 
has  upon  the  size  of  the  farm.  The  census 
reports  the  average  size  of  all  farms  in  the 
United  States  as  147  acres,  with  the  differ- 
ent types  as  follows:  Vegetables,  65  acres; 
fruits,  75  acres;  dairy  products,  120  acres; 
hay  and  grain,  159  acres;  and  live  stock, 
227  acres.  Speaking  in  a  very  general  way, 
only  about  one-half  the  land  on  these  farms 
is  in  cultivated  crops,  while  only  40%  of  the 
income  may  be  from  the  products  which 
cause  the  farm  to  be  thus  classified.  The 
young  farmer  will  do  well  to  have  these 
figures  in  mind  when  he  starts  out  in  life, 
for  while  they  are  not  to  be  followed  liter- 
ally, they  give  him  a  measuring  stick  with 
which  to  compare  his  operations. 


70 


CHAPTER  VII 
SELECTION  OF  FARM 

HAVING  some  of  these  preliminary 
questions  settled,  or  at  least  well  in 
mind,  the  young  farmer  is  ready  to  inspect 
individual  farms  with  a  view  to  purchasing 
or  renting.  He  should  examine  each  farm 
from  four  general  aspects,  namely:  (i)  The 
character  and  topography  of  the  soil,  (2) 
the  climatic  conditions,  including  healthful- 
ness  and  water  supply,  (3)  the  location,  and 
(4)  the  improvements. 

It  may  be  well  at  the  outset  to  emphasize 
the  advantage  which  even  a  small  difference 
in  fertility  may  bring.  Suppose  one  farm 
is  capable  of  raising  fifteen  bushels  of  wheat 
per  acre  and  another  twenty  bushels.  If 
wheat  is  80  cents  a  bushel,  then  the  gross  in- 
come is  $12  and  $16  respectively.  If  it  is 
assumed  that  it  costs  in  either  case  for  seed, 
labor  and  interest  on  investment  $8  an  acre 
to  raise  and  harvest  the  crop,  then  it  will  be 
seen  that  an  increase  of  five  bushels  an  acre 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

doubles  the  profit.  The  comparison  is  per- 
haps not  quite  fair,  since  it  costs  slightly 
more  to  harvest  the  larger  crop,  but  it  serves 
to  illustrate  the  point. 

Neither  the  crop  adaptation  nor  the  crop- 
producing  power  of  the  soil  can  be  deter- 
mined by  taking  a  sample  and  submitting  it 
to  a  chemist  for  analysis.  These  factors  can 
best  be  determined  by  the  character  of  the 
vegetation,  both  domestic  and  wild,  and  by 
a  knowledge  obtained  through  observation 
or  reading  as  to  what  this  particular  soil 
type  usually  does.  Every  type  of  soil  has 
certain  characteristics  which  under  like  con- 
ditions it  may  be  expected  to  reproduce, 
much  in  the  same  manner  as  each  species  of 
animal  reproduces  its  characteristics. 

The  first  essential  is  to  be  able  to  recog- 
nize the  different  soil  types.  This  can  only 
be  done  by  close  observation  and  study.  The 
second  essential  is  to  determine  what  the 
crop-producing  characteristics  of  these 
types  of  soil  are.  This  knowledge  may  be 
obtained  by  personal  observation;  but  as 
most  persons'  opportunities  are  limited  in 
72 


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SELECTION  OF  FARM 

this  direction,  it  should  be  supplemented 
wherever  possible  by  a  study  of  the  soil  sur- 
veys of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  wherever  these  are  available. 
When  this  is  not  possible  samples  of  soil 
may  be  submitted  to  the  Bureau  of  Soils  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture or  to  the  soil  division  of  the  state  ex- 
periment station,  together  with  a  suitable 
description  and  such  knowledge  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  land  as  is  obtainable.  In  this 
way  you  may  obtain  information  as  to  the 
natural  adaptation  of  the  particular  type 
of  soil. 

There  will  still  remain  the  question  of 
the  present  condition  of  the  land.  For  ex- 
ample, the  Pennsylvania  station  obtained  in 
a  certain  season  42  loads  of  hay  from  nine 
acres  of  land.  The  same  season,  from  exactly 
the  same  soil  type,  the  station  obtained  eight 
loads  of  hay  from  20  acres.  The  condition 
of  the  soil  was  different,  which  the  previous 
history  of  the  two  tracts  of  land  fully 
explains. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  therefore, 

73 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

to  distinguish  between  the  natural  fertility 
of  the  soil  and  the  condition  of  the  soil.  A 
further  example  will  help  to  illustrate  this 
point.  At  the  Rothamsted  Station  a  cer- 
tain type  of  soil  has  for  over  60  years  pro- 
duced annually  about  12  bushels  of  wheat 
an  acre  without  fertilizer,  while  with  a 
complete  fertilizer  the  same  type  has  pro- 
duced 30  or  more  bushels.  The  12  bushels 
may  be  said  to  represent  the  natural  fer- 
tility of  the  soil,  while  the  additional  18 
bushels  may  be  said  to  represent  the  condi- 
tion of  the  soil  due  to  fertilizers  or  to  other 
conditions.  On  the  other  hand,  the  natural 
condition  of  some  other  soil  type  might  be 
only  eight  bushels,  or  still  another  type 
might  be  16  bushels. 

This  principle  is  of  considerable  practi- 
cal importance,  especially  in  the  eastern 
third  of  the  United  States.  Generally  speak- 
ing, clay  and  silt  soils  have  a  greater  natural 
fertility  than  sandy  soils;  limestone  soils 
than  those  that  are  deficient  in  lime.  Thus 
soils  that  naturally  grow  chestnut  trees,  indi- 
cating a  low  lime  content,  have  a  tendency 

74 


SELECTION  OF  FARM 

to  deteriorate  under  exhaustive  cropping 
much  more  rapidly  than  limestone  soils. 
More  fertilizers  and  other  methods  of  soil 
improvement  are  necessary  in  the  case  of 
chestnut  soils  than  in  the  case  of  lime- 
stone valley  soils.  One  of  the  first 
questions  to  ask,  therefore,  concerning  an 
unknown  farm  in  Pennsylvania  is  whether 
or  not  chestnut  trees  grow  naturally.  It 
does  not  follow,  however,  that  chestnut  soils 
are  undesirable.  Much  will  depend  upon 
the  crop  or  crops  it  is  desired  to  raise.  For 
example,  in  some  regions  they  are  well 
adapted  to  potatoes  and  peaches.  In  these 
cases  the  cost  of  the  fertilizers  necessary  to 
keep  the  soil  in  proper  condition  is  small 
compared  with  the  total  return  from  the 
crop. 

The  pioneer's  best  guide  as  to  the  value  of 
new  land  was  and  is  the  vegetation  growing 
upon  it,  and,  especially  in  a  wooded  country, 
the  native  trees.  Basswood,  crab  apple,  wild 
plum,  black  walnut,  ash,  hickory  and  hard 
maple  generally  indicate  a  fertile  soil. 
White  oak  indicates  only  a  moderate  soil; 

75 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

bur  oak,  a  somewhat  warmer  and  better 
drained  soil.  Beech  indicates  a  rather  poor 
soil ;  a  heavy  clay,  lacking  in  organic  matter. 
Certain  species  of  elms,  maples  and  oaks,  as 
red  maple  and  the  Spanish  swamp  oak,  in- 
dicate wet  soils. 

The  occurrence  and  vigor  of  certain  her- 
baceous plants  are  especially  indicative  of 
fertility  of  the  soil,  as,  for  example,  rag- 
weed, bindweed,  certain  plants  of  the  sun- 
flower family,  such  as  goldenrod,  asters  and 
wild  sunflowers.  Soils  adapted  to  red 
clover  and  alfalfa  are  usually  well  drained 
and  contain  plenty  of  lime.  Alsike  clover 
will  grow  on  a  soil  too  wet  or  containing  too 
little  lime  for  either  of  the  former.  Soils 
that  produce  sorrel  and  redtop  when  red 
clover  and  timothy  are  sown  need  drainage 
or  liming  or  both.  Sedges  usually  indicate 
a  wet  soil,  although  certain  species  grow  on 
dry,  sandy  soils.  The  point  of  this  para- 
graph, however,  is  not  to  give  comprehen- 
sive advice  but  to  cause  the  young  farmer  to 
observe  the  conditions  and  make  his  own 
applications,  which  will  vary  in  different 


SELECTION  OF  FARM 

regions  and  under  different  circumstances. 

Perhaps  the  one  feature  that  the  young 
farmer  is  most  likely  to  overlook  in  the 
selection  of  a  farm  is  the  relative  proportion 
of  tillable  land.  One  farm  of  200  acres, 
may,  on  account  of  stony  land,  wet  land, 
comparatively  unproductive  woodland,  or 
because  of  the  arrangement  of  fences  and 
roadways,  contain  only  eighty  acres  of  tilla- 
ble land,  while  another  may  contain  160 
acres.  This  is  one  reason  why  a  i6o-acre 
farm  in  the  central  West  may  be  more  val- 
uable than  a  farm  of  the  same  size  in  the 
northeastern  United  States. 

Columella  says  with  regard  to  the  selec- 
tion of  land  that  there  are  two  things  chiefly 
to  be  considered,  the  wholesomeness  of  the 
air  and  the  fruitfulness  of  the  place,  "of 
which  if  either  the  one  or  the  other  should 
be  wanting,  and  notwithstanding  anyone 
should  have  a  mind  to  dwell  there,  he  must 
have  lost  his  senses  and  ought  to  be  con- 
veyed to  his  kinfolk  to  take  care  of  him." 

In  selecting  a  farm  do  not  fail  to  inquire 
whether  there  has  been  any  recent  illness, 
77 


THE  YOUNG   FARMER 

and  if  so  the  nature  of  it,  either  among  the 
persons  living  there  or  the  domestic  animals 
kept. 

Aside  from  healthfulness,  climate  is  a 
fundamental  and  controlling  factor,  both  in 
productiveness  and  economic  farm  manage- 
ment. Temperature  and  rainfall  affect  the 
number  of  days  that  work  can  be  performed 
upon  the  land  and  hence  affect  materially 
the  economy  of  labor.  It  is  this  fact  that 
prevents  the  systematic  organization  of 
labor  so  common  in  manufacturing  and 
transportation.  The  climate  also  affects  the 
cost  of  producing  live  stock  by  modifying 
the  food  and  shelter  required. 

The  climate  of  a  region  is  Dest  studied 
from  the  reports  of  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau  rather  than  from  the  state- 
ments published  by  interested  parties.  So 
far  as  the  production  of  crops  is  concerned 
the  distribution  of  rainfall  is  more  impor- 
tant than  the  annual  amount,  as  may  be 
shown  by  comparing  the  rainfall  in  such 
places  as  Columbus.  Ohio,  and  Lincoln, 
Nebraska. 

78 


SELECTION  OF  FARM 

The  average  temperature  during  the 
growing  season  is,  of  course,  of  more  impor- 
tance from  the  standpoint  of  crop  produc- 
tion than  the  average  annual  temperature. 
Maximum  and  minimum  temperatures  or 
the  range  of  temperature  must  be  consid- 
ered as  well  as  the  average  temperature. 

One  of  the  most  practical  questions  to 
determine  is  the  average  date  of  the  last 
killing  frost  in  the  spring  and  the  date  of  the 
first  killing  frost  in  the  autumn;  in  other 
words,  the  length  of  the  growing  season. 
Both  altitude  and  topography  enter  into  this 
problem.  In  a  given  locality  killing  frosts 
will  occur  on  a  still  night  in  the  valley  be- 
fore they  do  on  the  elevations,  because  the 
air  as  it  cools  becomes  heavier  and  flows 
down  into  the  lowest  places  just  as  water 
would  do.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  alti- 
tude increases  the  growing  season  shortens. 

Whenever  I  am  asked  a  question  involv- 
ing the  production  of  farm  crops  by  a 
Pennsylvania  farmer  before  answering,  I 
ask  three  questions:  (i)  Where  are  you 
located?  (2)  Do  chestnut  trees  grow  natu- 

79 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

rally  upon  your  land?  (3)  What  is  your 
altitude? 

One  factor  that  is  often  overlooked  by  the 
young  farmer  needs  only  to  be  mentioned 
to  be  thoroughly  appreciated.  It  is  the 
amount  and  character  of  the  water  supply. 
Not  only  is  this  of  the  utmost  importance 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  household,  but  it 
is  fundamental  to  the  best  farm  manage- 
ment. Thus,  if  the  water  supply  is  limited 
the  amount  of  live  stock  kept  will  be  cur- 
tailed, and  thus  the  proper  utilization  of 
farm  products  prevented  and  maintenance 
of  the  fertility  of  the  soil  made  more  diffi- 
cult. 

The  young  farmer  should  recognize  that 
some  kinds  of  farming  are  more  dependent 
upon  the  climatic  conditions  than  others  and 
should,  therefore,  select  the  location  best 
suited  to  the  type  of  farming  desired  or  else 
modify  his  type  of  farming  to  suit  the 
climatic  conditions.  If  one  studies  criti- 
cally the  types  of  farming  in  various  parts 
of  the  United  States,  it  will  be  seen  that  they 
have  already  been  adjusted  in  large  degree, 
80 


SELECTION  OF  FARM 

either  consciously  or  unconsciously,  to  the 
climatic  conditions.  The  young  farmer 
should  be  careful  that  he  does  not  undertake 
to  butt  his  head  against  a  stone  wall. 

Having  found  a  farm  that  suits  our  ideal 
as  to  the  natural  conditions,  such  as  the  crop 
adaptation,  fertility,  topography  and 
climate,  what  may  be  called  the  artificial 
conditions  must  be  studied. 

The  location  may  be  studied,  both  as  to 
local  and  distant  markets  and  the  means  of 
reaching  each,  which  includes  roadways 
and  shipping  facilities.  Here  again  much 
will  depend  upon  the  products  which  are  to 
be  sold.  The  man  who  raises  tobacco,  hogs 
or  beef  cattle  does  not  suffer  any  great 
economic  disadvantage  by  living  ten  miles 
from  a  shipping  station,  but  a  man  does  who 
produces  milk,  peaches,  potatoes  or  hay. 

In  these  days  there  is  not  much  danger 
that  the  character  of  the  roadway  will  be 
overlooked  by  the  intending  purchaser  of 
the  farm,  although  sufficient  importance 
may  not  be  given  to  the  advantage  of  really 
good  roads,  both  as  to  grade  and  surface. 
81 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

Perhaps  the  one  most  important  question  to 
consider  in  connection  with  the  transporta- 
tion facilities  is  whether  products  may  be 
shipped  without  change  from  the  shipping 
station  to  the  market  it  is  desired  to  reach. 
Although  at  first  glance  we  may  not  like 
the  thought,  it  must  be  conceded  that  neigh- 
bors are  not  only  important  morally  and 
socially,  but  they  also  may  have  economic 
advantages  and  disadvantages.  While  it 
may  sometimes  happen  that  it  will  be  wise 
to  raise  in  a  given  neighborhood  some 
product  that  no  one  else  has  undertaken  to 
supply,  yet  as  a  rule,  if  a  given  neighborhood 
is  raising  Jersey,  or  Guernsey  or  Holstein 
cattle  or  Chester  White,  Berkshire  or 
Poland  China  hogs,  or  Southdown  or 
Shropshire  or  Cotswold  sheep,  it  will  be 
wise  to  raise  the  breed  commonly  raised  in- 
stead of  the  least  commonly  raised  breed,  as 
it  is  sometimes  supposed.  The  more  potato 
growers  or  cabbage  growers  or  celery  rais- 
ers or  orchardists  in  a  locality  the  better  for 
all  concerned,  for  a  number  of  reasons, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  (i)  the 
82 


SELECTION  OF  FARM 

more  and  the  better  the  products  raised  the 
more  buyers  will  seek  the  region  and  hence 
the  higher  will  be  the  price  obtained  for  the 
product;  (2)  the  more  of  a  given  product 
there  is  to  ship  the  better  the  shipping  facil- 
ities for  that  product  are  likely  to  be;  (3) 
all  the  necessary  supplies  for  the  type  of 
farming  can  be  more  readily  and  cheaply 
obtained;  (4)  there  will  be  a  better  knowl- 
edge of  the  business  when  more  men  have 
had  experience  in  raising  the  particular 
crop. 

These  principles  apply  in  all  classes  of 
business;  thus  we  find  woolen  factories  in 
Philadelphia,  silk  factories  at  Paterson, 
N.  J.,  cotton  factories  at  Lowell,  Mass.,  plow 
factories  at  Moline,  111.,  and  steel  mills  at 
Pittsburg.  Many  of  these  centers  possessed 
originally  some  natural  advantages  which 
caused  the  location  of  the  first  factory,  but 
others  have  been  drawn  there  on  account  of 
the  principles  enunciated.  The  farmers  of 
a  given  region  have  a  community  of  interest 
as  well  as  railroads.  The  young  farmer 
should  recognize  this  fact  and  if  necessary 

83 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

should  exert  himself  to  develop  such  inter- 
est in  his  community,  both  for  his  own  ben- 
efit and  that  of  his  neighbors. 

There  are  two  classes  of  farms  for  which 
the  purchaser  is  in  danger  of  paying  too 
much,  one  on  which  there  are  extensive  im- 
provements and  one  on  which  there  are 
none  at  all.  A  farm  with  just  barely  enough 
improvements  for  the  conduct  of  the  type 
of  farming  it  is  proposed  to  develop  can 
usually  be  purchased  most  advantageously. 
The  purchaser  should  understand  clearly 
that  the  previous  cost  of  the  improvements 
has  no  necessary  relation  to  their  present 
value,  any  more  than  the  value  of  a  second- 
hand suit  of  clothes  is  dependent  upon  its 
original  cost.  All  depends  on  how  badly 
they  are  worn  and  how  well  they  are 
adapted  to  present  conditions.  The  value 
of  farm  improvements  is  not  unlike  those  in 
other  business  enterprises  in  this  respect. 
Their  value  depends  upon  present  and  pros- 
pective earning  capacity  and  not  on  former 
cost 

No  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  rela- 


SELECTION  OF  FARM 

tion  which  should  exist  between  the  value 
of  land  itself  and  the  value  of  the  improve- 
ments. In  practice  it  varies  greatly.  In  the 
United  States  the  farm  improvements  con- 
stitute on  an  average  21%  of  the  total  value 
of  land,  being  as  high  as  45%  in  Massachu- 
setts and  as  low  as  15%  in  Texas.  The 
young  farmer  may  well  consider,  therefore, 
whether  he  can  earn  interest  on  his  invest- 
ment when  the  improvements  cost  more  than 
2$%  of  the  total  value  of  the  real  estate.  Cer- 
tainly when  it  becomes  one-half  it  is  exces- 
sive. The  man  who  runs  a  farm  as  an  avoca- 
tion usually  errs  in  putting  too  much  money 
into  permanent  improvements  for  the  farm 
to  be  a  paying  investment. 

If  it  is  admitted  that  the  farm  unit  is  lim- 
ited because  of  the  physical  difficulties  of 
managing  large  areas,  then  it  must  at  once 
be  seen  how  important  the  arrangement  of 
the  farmsteading  must  be  to  the  successful 
conduct  of  the  farm.  In  the  older  farming 
communities  where  the  present  farm  hold- 
ings are  the  result  of  several  purchases  or 
sales  the  shape  of  the  farm,  the  arrangement 

8s 


THE  YOUNG   FARMER 

of  the  fields  and  the  place  of  the  farm  build- 
ings become  an  extremely  important  mat- 
ter. Sometimes  satisfactory  rearrangements 
are  easily  made,  at  other  times  they  are  quite 
impossible.  No  attempt  will  be  made  to 
discuss  this  subject  in  detail  here,  but  the 
young  farmer  should  bring  to  this  question 
all  the  experience  and  study  possible. 

When  the  young  farmer  goes  to  inspect 
a  farm  it  is  to  be  assumed  that  he  will  be 
conducted  over  the  farm  by  the  owner  or  his 
authorized  agent.  It  is  proper  to  give 
respectful  attention  to  everything  that  is 
told  him,  provided  he  follows  carefully  the 
California  adage  to  "believe  nothing  you 
hear  and  only  one-half  what  you  see." 

If  a  farm  consists  of  200  or  300  acres  of 
land,  it  is  possible  for  the  agent  to  convey 
the  purchaser  over  the  farm  in  such  a  way 
as  to  prevent  the  least  desirable  portions  be- 
ing seen.  If  the  farm  has  attracted  the 
seeker  of  land,  he  should  not  purchase  until 
he  has  made  another  visit,  preferably  some 
days  or  weeks  after  the  first  one.  He  may 
then  very  properly  visit  the  farm  alone,  pass- 
86 


SELECTION  OF   FARM 

ing  over  quite  a  different  course  from  that 
pursued  hitherto.  Sketches  and  notes  will 
be  found  very  helpful,  and  if  the  use  of  the 
soil  auger  is  understood  it  may  be  well  em- 
ployed to  study  the  character  of  both  soil 
and  subsoil.  During  the  interval  between 
visits  some  casual  inquiries  may  be  made 
among  those  who  know  the  history  of  the 
farm  in  question,  because  the  past  history 
of  the  farm  obtained  from  unprejudiced 
witnesses  is  of  prime  importance  in  arriving 
at  a  conclusion  concerning  its  value. 

A  farm  is  much  more  attractive  when  a 
crop  is  growing  upon  it  than  when  it  is 
without  active  vegetation.  Poor  land  looks 
relatively  better  than  good  land  during  or 
just  after  a  rain.  Many  matters  concerning 
the  selection  of  a  farm  can  only  be  learned 
by  some  years  of  practical  experience.  The 
young  farmer  will  do  well,  therefore,  to 
secure  the  help  of  some  more  experienced 
person.  If  he  has  among  his  acquaintances 
a  successful  farmer  of  mature  years  he  will 
be  fortunate  if  he  can  secure  his  advice. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  FARM  SCHEME 

FARMING  is  no  pink  tea.  It  is  a  serious 
business.  After  the  young  farmer  has 
selected  the  farm  he  must  develop  his  farm 
scheme.  He  must  contemplate  well  and 
seriously  the  philosophy  which  underlies 
his  plans.  Unless  he  sees  clearly  what  he  is 
striving  to  attain  and  unless  he  understands 
the  effect  of  his  methods,  he  must  fail  in 
great  measure  to  obtain  his  goal. 

Satisfactory  results  in  farming  cannot  be 
obtained  as  a  general  practice  if  the  man  is 
only  interested  in  the  results  of  a  single  year. 
For  this  reason  the  itinerant  tenant  system 
will  not  be  satisfactory  unless  the  landlord 
has  worked  out  a  satisfactory  scheme  which 
he  requires  his  tenant  to  follow. 

It  is  not  enough  that  a  man  shall  grow  a 
single  large  crop,  but  it  is  necessary  that  he 
should  continue  to  grow  a  satisfactory  crop 
at  least  at  regular  intervals.  For  example, 
a  piece  of  land  may  be  adapted  to  cabbage, 


THE  FARM  SCHEME 

celery,  potatoes  or  hay.  Assume  for  the 
moment  it  is  adapted  to  cabbage  and  that 
by  one  or  more  seasons  of  preparation  an 
enormous  crop  of  cabbages  may  be  «cured. 
This  fact  is  of  little  value  unless  suffi- 
cient quantity  is  raised  and  the  process 
can  be  repeated  annually.  Cabbages  cannot 
be  grown  again  on  this  particular  piece  of 
land  for  from  four  to  six  years  on  account  of 
club  root.  If  the  farmer  does  not  have  other 
areas  which  he  can  bring  into  cabbages 
year  after  year,  for  from  three  to  five 
years,  then  he  becomes  a  failure  as  a  cab- 
bage raiser.  Even  a  perennial,  like  alfalfa 
or  asparagus,  should  form  a  part  of  the  gen- 
eral scheme  of  crop  production  if  the  most 
satisfactory  results  are  to  be  obtained. 

There  are  two  general  questions  at  the 
basis  of  all  farm  schemes :  ( i )  How  to  ob- 
tain a  fairly  uniform  succession  of  cash 
products  year  after  year,  and  (2)  how  to 
keep  up  or  improve  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
economically  while  doing  so.  In  other 
words,  how  to  keep  the  investment  from 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

decreasing  while  it  is  earning  a  satisfactory 
and  fairly  uniform  income. 

It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  consider  what 
products  are  to  be  sold  and  what  are  simply 
subsidiary  to  the  cash  products.  The  cash 
products  may,  of  course,  be  soil  products  or 
animal  products,  but  more  likely  they  will 
be  both.  When  animals  form  a  large  part 
of  the  enterprise  the  cropping  system  must 
be  carefully  adjusted  to  meet  the  needs  of 
these  animals.  Many  apparently  trivial  de- 
tails must  be  considered,  as  for  example, 
whether  the  cropping  system  furnishes  too 
little  or  too  much  bedding  for  the  live  stock. 

In  considering  profits  the  enterprise  as  a 
whole  must  be  kept  in  view.  For  example, 
if  a  man  is  producing  milk,  it  may  be 
cheaper,  so  far  as  the  production  of  milk  is 
concerned,  to  allow  the  liquid  excrement  to 
run  to  waste  rather  than  to  arrange  for  suffi- 
cient bedding.  If,  however,  by  using  an 
abundance  of  bedding  and  saving  all  the 
high-priced  nitrogen  and  the  larger  part  of 
the  potash  in  the  manure,  he  is  able  to  raise 
twelve  tons  of  silage  in  place  of  eight  tons, 
90 


THE  FARM  SCHEME 

or  three  tons  of  hay  in  place  of  two  tons,  his 
enterprise  as  a  whole  will  be  more  profitable 
when  he  uses  the  extra  amount  of  bedding, 
although  so  far  as  the  production  of  a  quart 
of  milk  is  concerned  the  cost  is  increased. 
It  may  be  that  by  feeding  corn  to  cattle  or 
sheep  one  will  obtain  only  50  cents  a  bushel 
for  his  maize,  while  his  neighbor  is  selling 
it  to  the  elevator  at  60  cents.  If,  however, 
the  man  who  feeds  his  maize  year  after  year 
thereby  raises  60  bushels  instead  of  40 
bushels,  his  enterprise,  as  a  whole,  may  be 
more  profitable  than  that  of  his  neighbor. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Pennsylvania  ex- 
periment station  has  substantially  these  two 
conditions  in  certain  of  its  fertilizer  plats. 
When  for  25  years  the  conditions  have  been 
similar  to  those  where  crops  are  sold  from 
the  farm,  the  yields  have  been :  Maize,  42 
bushels;  oats,  32  bushels;  wheat,  14  bushels; 
and  hay,  2,783  pounds  per  acre.  But  when 
conditions  exist  which  represent  the  feeding 
of  corn,  oats  and  hay  and  the  return  of 
manure  to  the  soil,  the  yields  have  been: 
Maize,  58  bushels;  oats,  41  bushels;  wheat, 

91 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

23  bushels;  and  hay  4,190  pounds  per  acre. 
In  the  first  instance  the  value  of  the  pro- 
ducts has  been  $15.75  an  acre>  while  in  the 
other  case  it  has  been  $22.90  an  acre. 

Having  worked  out  a  cropping  system 
that  gives  the  proper  yearly  production  of 
several  crops  desired,  the  next  question  to 
decide  is  how  this  cropping  system  and  the 
disposition  of  the  crops  is  going  to  affect 
the  fertility  of  the  soil.  From  a  financial  or 
economic  point  of  view  the  most  important 
soil  element  is  nitrogen.  First,  because  it 
costs  from  18  to  20  cents  a  pound,  while 
phosphoric  acid  can  be  purchased  at  five 
cents,  potash  at  four  cents ;  and,  second,  be- 
cause of  the  readiness  with  which  nitro- 
gen may  disappear  from  the  soil  under  im- 
proper management,  either  through  nitrifi- 
cation and  leaching  or  by  denitrification  and 
passing  back  into  the  air. 

Assuming  a  given  type  of  management, 
the  question  is,  How  much  of  the  required 
nitrogen  will  be  obtained  from  the  legumes 
in  the  cropping  system,  how  much  from  the 
manure,  and  how  much  must  be  purchased 
92 


THE  FARM  SCHEME 

in  commercial  fertilizers?  No  satisfactory 
cropping  system  can  be  devised  at  the  pres- 
ent prices  of  farm  products  and  cost  of 
fertilizers  for  the  production  of  the  ordi- 
nary cereals  and  hay  that  does  not  include 
the  production  of  some  legume.  Assuming  a 
legume  in  the  cropping  scheme,  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  may  be  maintained  by  yard  ma- 
nure alone  or  by  commercial  fertilizers 
alone.  Illustrations  of  both  methods  are  to 
be  found  in  actual  practice.  Generally 
speaking,  however,  the  use  of  yard  manure 
supplemented  with  commercial  fertilizers 
will  be  found  more  scientific  and  in  the  end 
the  most  economical. 

A  factor  entering  into  this  problem  will 
be  the  amount  of  purchased  feed.  If  con- 
siderable amounts  of  purchased  feeds  are 
used  and  the  resulting  manure  carefully  pre- 
served and  judiciously  applied,  the  com- 
mercial fertilizers  required  will  be  reduced 
to  the  minimum. 

A  concrete  illustration  may  bring  out  the 
philosophy  underlying  farm  schemes  better 
than  abstract  problems. 

93 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

The  following  outline  shows  a  five-course 
rotation  with  the  method  of  fertilization 
which  the  results  of  the  Pennsylvania  Sta- 
tion indicated  would  be  advisable,  at  least 
on  limestone  soils  in  eastern  United  States. 

1.  Maize    yard   manure,    8   tons   per    acre. 

2.  Oats    nothing. 

3.  Wheat   acid  phosphate,  350  Ibs. 

muriate  of  potash,  100  Ibs. 

4..     Clover  and  timothy nothing. 

5.     Timothy    nitrate  of  soda,  150  Ibs. 

acid  phosphate,  150  Ibs. 

muriate  of  potash,  50  Ibs. 

This  rotation  is  suggested  for  the  purpose 
of  maintaining  a  farm  that  is  already  in  a 
fairly  fertile  condition  and  one  on  which 
there  is  no  considerable  amount  of  pur- 
chased feed.  Where  concentrates  are  pur- 
chased liberally,  yard  manure  should  be 
available  to  use  on  the  timothy  and  meadow 
in  place  of  the  commercial  fertilizers. 

Where  there  is  plenty  of  manure  and  it  is 
desired  to  increase  the  amount  of  maize  and 
hay  and  reduce  the  amount  of  oats  and 
wheat,  the  following  rotation  and  method  of 
fertilization  would  be  indicated: 

94 


THE  FARM   SCHEME 

1.  Maize acid  phosphate,  200  Ibs. 

2.  Maize yard  manure,  8  tons. 

3.  Oats   nothing. 

4.  Wheat   acid  phosphate,  350  Ibs. 

muriate  of  potash,  100  Ibs. 

5.  Clover  and  timothy nothing. 

6.  Timothy nitrate  of  soda,  150  Ibs. 

acid  phosphate,  150  Ibs. 
muriate  of  potash,  50  Ibs. 

7.  Timothy    yard  manure,  8  tons. 

Where  there  is  plenty  of  yard  manure,  it 
would  be  also  applied  to  maize  under  No. 
i,  or  the  yard  manure  could  be  applied  to 
maize  under  No.  i,  and  commercial  ferti- 
lizer applied  to  timothy  under  No.  6  could 
be  repeated  under  No.  7.  If  the  land  is 
more  or  less  depleted,  an  application  of  200 
pounds  of  acid  phosphate  to  the  oats  would 
be  advisable.  However,  the  purpose  is 
not  to  prescribe  exact  methods,  but  to  point 
out  underlying  principles  and  their  possi- 
ble application. 

As  further  illustration,  it  seems  probable 
that  the  practice  of  a  market  gardener  in 
using  excessive  amounts  of  stable  manure 
might,  in  some  instances  at  least,  be  modi- 
fied to  good  advantage  by  reducing  the 
amount  of  manure  and  increasing  the 
95 


THE  YOUNG   FARMER 

amount  of  commercial  fertilizer  used.  Un- 
fortunately there  is  no  experimental  evi- 
dence bearing  upon  this  question. 

Potash  required  to  maintain  fertility  is 
largely  to  be  found  in  the  coarse  fodder, 
such  as  hay,  maize  stover  and  silage,  and  in 
the  straw  used  for  bedding;  hence  where 
these  substances  are  used  in  abundance  and 
returned  to  the  soil  the  amount  of  potash 
required  to  be  supplied  in  fertilizers  is  re- 
duced to  a  minimum.  Where,  however,  the 
amount  of  live  stock  is  limited  and  the 
products  sold  contain  large  quantities  of 
potash,  such  as  hay  and  straw,  the  supply 
furnished  in  fertilizers  must  be  liberal. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  always  being  slowly 
depleted  from  the  soil  either  from  the  sale 
of  farm  crops  or  animal  products.  There  is 
no  way  of  returning  this  loss  completely, 
except  from  the  addition  of  a  commercial 
fertilizer. 

The  above  fertilizer  suggestions  are  based 
on  the  experiments  covering  a  period  of 
more  than  25  years  on  a  limestone  soil. 
Soils  may  modify  materially  the  amount 


THE  FARM  SCHEME 

and  application  of  the  fertilizers,  but  not 
the  principles  enunciated.  For  example,  a 
soil  on  which  common  red  clover  grows 
luxuriantly  and  has  a  prominent  place  in  the 
farm  scheme  will  require  less  nitrogen  in 
commercial  fertilizers  in  order  to  maintain 
the  fertility  than  where  legumes  are  raised 
with  difficulty  or  do  not  form  a  part  of  the 
farm  scheme. 

One  of  the  most  important  points  to  be 
emphasized  is  the  fact  that  haphazard  fer- 
tilization is  not  effective  in  maintaining  soil 
fertility.  If  one  starts  out  to  establish  a  five- 
course  rotation  and  build  up  his  soil  through 
a  rational  system  of  fertilization,  he  will 
obviously  not  obtain  the  full  benefit  of  the 
rotation  until  he  begins  to  get  crops  from 
the  second  round,  which  will  be  the  sixth 
year  from  the  beginning.  It  may  happen, 
and  unfortunately  it  has  perhaps  usually 
happened  in  the  past,  that  during  the  first 
rotation  the  increase  in  crops  has  not  paid 
for  the  cost  of  the  fertilizers  applied.  In 
many  instances  a  rational  system  of  ferti- 
lization has  not  been  introduced  because 

97 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

the  owner  of  the  land  could  not  afford  to 
\vait  six  years  for  his  return.  Profit  in  farm- 
ing, therefore,  does  not  consist  in  raising  one 
big  crop  or  even  in  obtaining  a  large  bal- 
ance on  the  right  side  of  the  ledger  in  a 
single  year.  It  is  both  interesting  and  valu- 
able to  know  that  five  tons  of  timothy  hay, 
45  bushels  of  wheat,  100  bushels  of  maize 
and  40  tons  of  cabbage  may  be  raised  on  an 
acre,  but  the  real  profit  in  farming  only 
comes  through  a  lifetime  of  effort.  To  the 
man  of  capacity  who  prepares  for  his  work 
the  results  will  surely  come,  but  they  will 
not  come  all  at  once  and,  as  in  every  other 
business,  he  must  pay  the  price  in  hard  work 
and  close  application  to  details. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  emphasized 
that  one  of  the  difficulties  in  successful 
farming  is  to  find  one  man  both  inter- 
ested and  capable  along  the  various  lines 
essential  to  a  successful  farm  enter- 
prise. The  danger  is  that  a  man  will 
ride  his  hobby  to  the  detriment  of  the 
other  activities  of  the  farm.  A  farmer 
friend  of  the  writer,  who  keeps  a  horse  and 


THE  FARM   SCHEME 

buggy,  cares  so  little  for  a  horse  that  for  sev- 
eral years  he  has  walked  two  miles  each 
morning  and  each  evening  rather  than  to 
take  the  trouble  to  hitch  up  his  horse.  If 
one  visits  a  high-grade  breeder  of  dairy  cat- 
tle, he  is  very  apt  to  find  his  pigs  of  ordinary 
character.  On  the  other  hand,  a  specialist 
in  hogs  is  likely  to  keep  scrub  cows.  A  man 
may  be  an  excellent  wheat  raiser  and  a  poor 
potato  grower,  and  the  reverse.  The  breeder 
of  live  stock  is  likely  to  be  lacking  in  his 
methods  of  producing  farm  crops,  while  the 
up-to-date,  so-called  general  farmer  is  not 
likely  to  be  a  special  lover  of  live  stock.  In 
like  manner,  the  man  may  be  a  successful 
farmer,  dairyman  or  horticulturist  from  the 
producing  side,  but  be  a  poor  salesman.  In 
fact,  those  qualities  of  mind  and  heart  which 
make  for  the  best  success  from  the  stand- 
point of  production,  whether  soil  products 
or  animal  products,  is  not  that  which  makes 
the  best  trader. 

It  is  not  expected  that  the  young  farmer 
will  be  materially  different  from  his  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  predecessors,  but  the 

99 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

better  a  man  is  trained  and  the  more  fully 
he  studies  his  own  adaptabilities  and  defi- 
ciencies, the  more  likely  he  is  to  succeed  in 
the  open  country.  For  this  reason,  the 
young  man  should  be  careful  to  get  as  broad 
a  training  as  possible.  It  is,  therefore,  often 
more  important  for  him  to  study  those 
things  which  he  dislikes  than  to  study  the 
things  for  which  he  has  a  natural  taste. 

There  was  a  man  in  our  town 

And  he  was  wondrous  wise. 
He  knew  that  if  he  wanted  crops 

He'd  have  to  fertilize. 
"It's  nitrogen  that  makes  things  green," 

Said  this  man  of  active  brain; 
"And  potash  makes  the  good  strong  straw, 

And  phosphate  plumps  the  grain. 
But  it's  clearly  wrong  to  waste  plant  food 

On  a  wet  and  soggy  field; 
I'll  surely  have  to  put  in  drains 

If  I'd  increase  the  yield. 
"And  after  I  have  drained  the  land 

I  must  plow  it  deep  all  over; 
And  even  then  I'll  not  succeed 

Unless  it  will  grow  clover. 
Now,  acid  soils  will  not  produce 

A  clover  sod  that's  prime; 
So  if  I  have  a  sour  soil, 

I'll  have  to  put  on  lime. 
"And  after  doing  all  these  things, 

To  make  success  more  sure, 
I'll  try  my  very  best  to  keep 

From  wasting  the  manure. 
So  I'll  drain,  and  lime,  and  cultivate, 

With  all  that  that  implies; 
And  when  I've  done  that  thoroughly 

I'll  manure  and  fertilize."  Vivian 

100 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  ROTATION  OF  CROPS 

THE  two  essential  reasons  for  a  rotation 
of  crops  are:  (i)  The  possibility  of 
obtaining  for  the  soil  a  supply  of  nitrogen 
from  the  air  by  introducing  a  legume  at 
regular  intervals,  and  (2)  the  prevention  of 
injury  to  the  crops  from  fungous  diseases, 
insect  enemies,  weeds  or  other  causes.  Other 
reasons  are  often  advanced,  some  of  which 
are  entirely  erroneous,  while  others  are  of 
quite  secondary  importance. 

The  rotation  should  be  carefully  studied 
with  reference  to  the  farm  scheme  as  pre- 
viously outlined.  Reasons  for  modifying 
the  rotations  are:  (i)  To  change  the  kind 
or  proportion  of  crops  grown,  (2)  to  change 
the  amount  of  labor  required,  or  (3)  to  in- 
crease the  crop-producing  power  of  the  soil. 

During  25  years  the  four  crops  of  maize, 

oats,  wheat,  timothy  and  clover  hay  have 

been  taken  in  rotation  from  the  four  tiers 

of  plats  at  the  Pennsylvania  State  College, 

101 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

so  that  the  influence  of  the  soil  has  been 
entirely  eliminated.  At  the  December  farm 
prices  for  the  decade  ending  December  i, 
1906,  the  value  of  these  four  crops  per  acre 
have  been:  Maize,  $29.67;  oats,  $14.49; 
wheat,  $18.49;  and  hay,  $18.05.  It  Wl^  be 
noted  that  during  25  years  the  average  in- 
come from  an  acre  of  maize  has  been  almost 
exactly  twice  that  from  an  acre  of  oats.  The 
region  where  these  results  were  obtained  is 
relatively  unfavorable  to  a  large  yield  of 
maize.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  a  mod- 
ification in  the  rotation  may  modify  the 
average  income  from  the  farm  materially, 
provided  such  modification  does  not  reduce 
the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Thus,  while  the 
average  income  per  acre  during  25  years  for 
the  four-course  rotation  above  mentioned 
was  $20.17,  if  the  rotation  were  increased  to 
a  five-course  rotation  by  the  addition  of  an- 
other year  of  maize,  the  average  income 
would  be  $22.45  an  acre. 

It  may  be  desirable  to  modify  the  rota- 
tion in  order  to  increase  or  decrease  a  cer- 
tain crop  usually  fed  upon  the  farm.  Thus, 
102 


THE  ROTATION  OF  CROPS 

with  a  four-course  rotation  of  maize,  oats, 
wheat,  clover  and  timothy,  one-fourth  the 
area  would  produce  hay;  while  with  a  six- 
course  rotation,  composed  of  maize,  oats, 
wheat,  each  one  year,  and  hay  three  years, 
one-half  the  area  would  produce  hay.  If  it 
is  desired  to  still  further  reduce  the  area  in 
oats  and  wheat,  a  seven-course  rotation  could 
be  arranged  with  maize,  two  years  in  suc- 
cession. This  is  the  rotation  that  would  be 
desirable  for  a  dairy  farm  where  it  is 
planned  to  keep  as  many  cows  as  practicable 
and  to  buy  the  concentrates  largely.  Either 
the  wheat  or  the  oats  could  be  taken  out  of 
this  rotation  if  either  the  one  or  the  other 
were  thought  undesirable  and  a  still  greater 
amount  of  roughage  desired. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  places  where 
the  minimum  amount  of  roughage  is 
wanted.  There  are  certain  sections  of  the 
central  West  where  it  is  possible  to  sow 
oats  on  corn  stubble  without  plowing  and 
where  occasionally  a  rotation  is  practiced  of 
maize,  oats  and  mammoth  clover.  The 
clover  is  plowed  for  maize,  the  oats  are 
103 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

disked  in  upon  the  corn  stubble  and  the 
next  year  the  clover  is  pastured  until  about 
June  i,  when  it  is  allowed  to  go  to  seed.  In 
this  rotation  the  only  roughage  obtained  is 
the  corn  stover  and  the  oat  straw. 

Another  result  reached  by  this  rotation  is 
that  only  one-third  the  land  is  plowed  an- 
nually. In  the  four-course  rotation  men- 
tioned above  three-fourths  of  the  land  must 
be  plowed,  while  in  the  six-course  rotation 
one-half  is  plowed  each  year.  In  other 
ways  the  character  of  the  rotation  modifies 
the  labor.  For  example,  the  labor  and  cost  of 
harvesting  an  acre  of  hay  is  much  less  than 
that  of  producing,  harvesting  and  thresh- 
ing an  acre  of  wheat. 

Rotations  may  often  be  planned  with 
reference  to  the  main  or  cash  crop.  Thus  in 
the  Aroostook  (Maine)  potato  district  the 
rotation  is  potatoes,  oats  and  clover.  The 
chief  purpose  of  the  oats  and  clover  is  to 
keep  down  the  blight  in  potatoes  and  add 
through  the  clover  nitrogen  and  organic 
matter  to  the  soil. 

A  system  of  cropping  that  is  best 
104 


THE  ROTATION  OF  CROPS 

when  the  owner  operates  the  farm  may 
not  be  desirable  when  the  farmer  is  a 
tenant.  When  a  farm  is  rented,  the 
lease  should  provide  that  clover  or  other 
legumes  occur  with  sufficient  frequency  to 
keep  up  the  supply  of  nitrogen  without  the 
purchase  of  a  considerable  quantity  in  chem- 
ical fertilizers.  The  lease  should  be  so 
drawn  as  to  make  it  necessary  for  the  tenant 
to  keep  live  stock  in  order  to  realize  the 
largest  profit.  The  landlord  should  pro- 
vide an  equitable  proportion  of  the  mineral 
fertilizers  when  such  are  required. 

The  provisions  of  the  lease  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  rotation  will  necessarily  vary 
with  circumstances,  but  the  following  sys- 
tem of  tenant  farming  which  has  been  em- 
ployed for  many  years  in  Maryland  will 
illustrate  the  principles  just  stated: 

The  lease  provides  for  a  five-course  rota- 
tion consisting  of  maize,  wheat,  clover, 
wheat,  clover.  The  landlord  and  the  ten- 
ant share  the  maize  and  wheat  equally,  but 
the  clover  for  hay  or  pasture  goes  entirely 
to  the  tenant,  unless  hay  is  sold,  when  it  is 
105 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

divided  equally.  They  each  provide  one- 
half  the  commercial  fertilizer  and  one-half 
the  seed,  except  clover  seed,  which  the  ten- 
ant is  required  to  furnish. 

This  lease  provides  for  two  clover  crops 
out  of  every  five  crops  raised,  thus  supply- 
ing nitrogen  abundantly,  and  the  terms  of 
the  lease  are  such  that  it  is  necessary  for  the 
tenant  to  keep  live  stock  to  consume  these 
clover  crops  in  order  to  secure  the  most 
profitable  returns.  The  feeding  of  the 
clover  makes  it  necessary  to  feed  some  or  all 
the  maize  and  may  lead  to  buying  addi- 
tional concentrates. 

Stable  manure  is  thereby  supplied  for  the 
field  which  is  to  raise  maize,  while  mineral 
fertilizers  may  be  applied  to  the  fields 
sown  to  wheat.  On  the  limestone  soils  of 
the  eastern  states  50  pounds  each  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash  per  acre  applied  to 
the  wheat,  and  10  loads  of  stable  manure  per 
acre  to  the  maize  will  probably  be  found 
sufficient  to  maintain  the  crop  producing 
power  of  the  soil. 

In  laying  out  a  farm  for  a  rotation  it  is 
1 06 


THE  ROTATION  OF  CROPS 

desirable  to  plan  the  number  of  fields  or 
tracts  that  will  go  in  a  rotation  and  try  to 
get  these  as  nearly  equal  size  as  possible. 
Having  decided  upon  the  number  of  years 
the  rotation  is  to  run  and  having  adjusted 
the  fields  or  tracts  accordingly,  it  is  quite 
possible  to  modify  the  proportion  of  crops 
by  adding  one  crop  and  dropping  another 
at  the  same  time.  Thus,  if  there  are  six  20- 
acre  fields,  any  one  of  the  following  rota- 
tions might  be  used  and  the  change  from  one 
to  another  easily  made: 

1.  Maize  Maize  Maize  Maize  Maize 

2.  Oats  Maize  Maize  Maize  Barley 

3.  Wheat  Oats  Oats  Wheat  Alfalfa 

4.  Clover  and  Wheat  Clover  and  Clover  and  Alfalfa 

timothy  timothy          timothy 

5.  Timothy        Clover  and    Timothy        Timothy        Alfalfa 

timothy 

6.  Timothy        Timothy        Timothy        Timothy        Alfalfa 

During  the  first  year  the  2O-acre  field 
could  be  divided  into  four  tracts  of  five 
acres  each,  containing  potatoes,  cabbage, 
tomatoes  and  sweet  corn,  and  then  followed 
for  four  or  five  years  by  any  succession  of 
crops  above  outlined.  The  point  is  that  a 
definite  adjustment  of  the  farm  to  some  gen- 
107 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

eral  method  of  rotation  and  a  definite  sys- 
tem of  fertilization  and  soil  renovation  do 
not  prevent  a  considerable  latitude  in  the 
crops  raised.  It  will  be  obvious  that  the 
longer  the  rotation  the  more  flexible  it  be- 
comes in  this  particular,  which  is  a  point 
to  be  considered  in  laying  out  the  farm  and 
in  adjusting  fields  and  fences. 

In  some  cases  it  may  be  desirable  on  ac- 
count of  the  arrangement  of  the  farm  or  the 
character  of  the  crops  to  be  raised  to  have 
two  distinct  rotations  of  crops.  For  exam- 
ple, if  the  farm  lends  itself  to  be  divided  into 
eight  tracts,  a  five-course  rotation  of  maize, 
oats,  wheat,  each  one  year,  and  clover  and 
timothy  two  years,  and  a  three-course  rota- 
tion of  potatoes,  oats  or  wheat  and  clover 
may  be  arranged. 


108 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  EQUIPMENT 

THE  workman  is  known  by  his  tools. 
The  problem  of  obtaining  the  most 
efficient  machinery  for  the  conduct  of  the 
farm  without  having  an  excessive  amount  is 
not  easy  of  solution. 

It  is  probable  that  the  cost  of  maintain- 
ing machinery  and  tools  is  not  less  than  15%, 
10%  for  upkeep  and  5%  for  interest,  even 
under  the  most  careful  management.  Doubt- 
less in  practice  it  is  as  much  as  25%.  If  this 
is  conceded  there  must  be  a  limit  to  the 
amount  which  may  be  economically  in- 
vested in  equipment.  This  is  a  place  where 
the  lead  pencil  may  be  used  profitably.  For 
example,  if  $125  is  invested  in  a  self-binder, 
the  annual  cost  of  the  machine  at  15%  will 
be  $18.75.  If  one  has  but  15  acres  of  grain 
to  harvest,  it  may  be  better  to  hire 
a  self-binder  at  $i  an  acre.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  may  be  necessary  to  own  a  self- 
109 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

binder  in  order  to  get  the  grain  harvested  at 
the  proper  time. 

Among  the  machines  requiring  a  consid- 
erable investment  for  the  number  of  days 
used  may  be  mentioned  hay  loaders,  hay  ted- 
ders, corn-binding  harvesters  and  lime 
spreaders.  There  is  a  certain  class  of  labor- 
saving  devices,  however,  for  which  there  is 
more  or  less  constant  need,  as,  for  example, 
means  of  pumping  water,  methods  of 
handling  manure,  both  from  the  stable  to 
the  manure  shed,  and  from  the  manure  shed 
to  the  field.  This  leads  to  the  remark  that 
there  is  at  present  great  need  of  modifying 
our  traditional  ideas  concerning  farm  barns. 
Why  do  persons  usually  sleep  on  the  second 
floor,  while  horses  and  cattle  are  placed  in 
the  basement?  Three  things  have  brought 
about  the  need  of  a  radical  revision  of  our 
practices  concerning  the  planning  of  barns: 
(i)  Our  present  knowledge  of  the  differ- 
ence in  the  function  of  food  in  keeping  the 
animal  warm,  and  that  of  producing  work, 
flesh  or  milk;  (2)  the  discovery  of  the 
bacillus  of  tuberculosis;  and  (3)  the  inven- 
110 


THE  EQUIPMENT 

tion  of  the  hay  carrier.  It  is  not  the  pur- 
pose here  to  discuss  barn  buildings,  but 
merely  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
traditional  barn  has  long  since  outlived  its 
usefulness,  and  that  the  young  farmer  should 
plan  his  farm  buildings  to  serve  the  pur- 
poses required  in  the  light  of  modern 
knowledge. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  man- 
ufacture combined  machines ;  that  is,  a  ma- 
chine which,  by  an  interchange  of  parts  or 
other  modification,  may  be  used  for  two  or 
more  purposes,  as,  for  example,  harvesting 
small  grain  and  cutting  grass.  Such  at- 
tempts have  usually  been  unsuccessful.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  young  farmer  should 
consider  the  range  of  usefulness  of  any  given 
type  of  machine  or  tool ;  thus,  a  disk  harrow 
is  more  efficient  for  some  purposes  than  a 
spring-tooth  harrow.  For  other  purposes 
the  spike-tooth  harrow  is  better  than  the 
spring  tooth.  The  spring-tooth  harrow, 
however,  will  do  fairly  well  wherever  the 
disk  harrow  or  the  spike-tooth  harrow  is 
needed.  When,  therefore,  only  one  of  these 
in 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

tools  can  be  afforded,  the  spring  tooth  may 
be  a  better  tool  to  buy  than  either  the  disk  or 
the  spike-tooth,  although  it  is  not  for  certain 
purposes  as  efficient  as  either  of  the  others. 
The  kind  of  machine  should  obviously  be 
adjusted  to  the  conditions,  as,  for  example, 
the  size  of  the  farm,  and  the  character  of  the 
farming.  Riding  plows  may  be  desirable 
on  level  land,  but  where  it  is  necessary  to 
plow  up  and  down  hill,  walking  plows 
should  be  used.  The  extra  weight  of  the 
wheel  plow  is  not  a  serious  matter  on  level 
land,  because  the  sliding  friction  has  been 
transferred  to  rolling  friction,  but  no 
mechanical  device  has  been  or  can  be  in- 
vented which  will  decrease  the  power 
necessary  to  raise  a  given  weight  a  given 
height.  The  various  machines  requiring 
horse  power  should  be  adjusted,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  require  the  same  number  of 
horses.  If  the  main  unit  is  three  horses, 
then,  as  far  as  possible,  all  machines  should 
require  three  horses,  such  as  plows,  harrows, 
manure  spreaders,  harvesters,  etc.  If  the 
activities  of  the  farm  are  sufficient  to  require 
112 


THE  EQUIPMENT 

six  horses  then  some  of  the  tools  may  require 
three  horses  each,  while  others  require  a 
pair. 

A  farm  with  six  work  horses  is  rather  a 
desirable  one  from  several  aspects.  Among 
other  things,  it  enables  the  farm  owner  to 
employ  two  men  who  can  perform  most  of 
the  team  work  with  two  three-horse  teams, 
while  at  other  times  three  pairs  of  horses 
may  be  arranged  when  the  owner  needs  to 
use  a  team.  This  leaves  the  farmer  time  to 
attend  to  many  activities  not  requiring 
horses,  and  time  to  plan  the  work  and  to 
look  with  more  care  after  the  purchases  and 
sales.  The  size  of  such  a  farm  will  depend 
entirely  on  the  nature  of  the  activities.  If  it 
is  a  so-called  general  farm  with  a  minimum 
ol  live  stock,  it  would,  perhaps,  consist  of 
from  150  to  1 80  acres  of  tillable  land  with 
some  additional  pasture  and  woodland. 
Ideally,  every  farm  should  have  sufficient 
activity  to  make  it  something  of  a  center.  It 
should  be  an  organism.  It  is  difficult  to 
organize  one  man. 

It  will  be  useful,  when  we  come  to  discuss 

"3 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

how  profits  may  be  estimated,  to  divide  the 
capital  into  three  general  groups:  (i)  The 
plant,  which  in  addition  to  the  real  estate, 
will  include  the  machines  and  tools,  horses 
used  for  labor,  and  other  animals  used  for 
breeding  purposes  or  for  the  production  of 
animal  products,  such  as  butter,  wool  or 
eggs;  (2)  materials,  which  will  include 
animals  which  are  to  be  fattened  for  sale, 
and  all  seeds,  fertilizers  and  foods  intended 
to  be  turned  into  products  to  be  sold;  (3) 
supplies,  which  may  include  foods  for 
teams,  and  money  with  which  to  pay  labor, 
be  this  labor  that  of  the  farmer  or  his  em- 
ployees. 

The  purpose  of  this  classification  is  to 
bring  sharply  into  view  the  fact  that  the 
nature  of  different  kinds  of  equipment 
varies.  All  the  things  named  under  the  plant 
are  in  the  nature  of  an  annual  charge  against 
income.  The  charge  under  materials  may 
or  may  not  be  an  annual  charge.  If  a  man 
invests  $2,000  in  50  head  of  cattle,  which  he 
intends  to  feed  and  sell  for  $3,250  at  the  end 
of  one  hundred  days,  he  does  not  have  to 
114 


THE  EQUIPMENT 

calculate  interest  on  $2,000  for  a  year,  but 
only  for  100  days.  Cattle  paper  is  held  in 
large  quantities  by  banks  in  the  cattle  feed- 
ing districts  of  the  United  States.  The 
farmer  would,  in  fact,  be  unwise  to  keep 
$2,000  in  the  bank  nine  months  in  the  year 
in  order  to  use  it  three  months.  Like  any 
other  business  man,  if  he  has  the  money,  he 
invests  it  and  borrows  the  money  to  buy  his 
cattle.  The  same  thing  applies  to  food  and 
fertilizers.  If  the  food  is  fed  to  cattle,  some 
of  the  money  invested  in  the  food  must  pay 
interest  during  the  fattening  period.  Food 
fed  to  dairy  cattle  and  chickens  may  be  paid 
for  out  of  each  day's  income.  In  practice, 
the  amount  of  money  invested  in  food  for 
dairy  cattle  and  chickens  is  dependent  only 
upon  the  most  economical  unit  of  purchase. 
One  may  apply  fertilizers  to  buckwheat, 
give  a  three  months'  note  for  the 
fertilizer,  and  pay  the  note  out  of  the 
proceeds  of  the  crop.  If  the  fertilizer  is 
applied  to  one-year-old  apple  trees,  this  in- 
vestment may  be  required  to  pay  interest  for 
fifteen  years. 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

The  same  principle  applies  to  supplies. 
If  one  starts  into  raising  horses  for  sale,  he 
needs  to  have  some  money  or  other  income 
on  which  his  laborers  and  his  own  family 
can  live,  say  for  five  years,  this  being  the 
age  at  which  a  horse  is  supposed  to  become 
salable.  More  people  would  raise  apples 
and  horses  if  they  could  afford  to  wait  for 
the  return  on  the  investment. 

While  this  is  a  serious  handicap,  it  is  an 
advantage  to  the  man  who  arranges  his 
farming  methods  so  that  he  can  secure  an 
income  from  some  other  source  in  the  in- 
terim. The  young  farmer  will  do  wisely  to 
so  arrange  his  farm  methods  that  a  portion, 
perhaps  the  major  portion  of  his  farm,  will 
give  him  quick  returns  while  making 
some  long-time  investments,  which  later  in 
life  will  give  him  a  greater  return  because 
so  few  people  are  sufficiently  forehanded  to 
make  them. 


116 


CHAPTER  XI 
HOW  TO  ESTIMATE  PROFITS 

NO  man  who  engages  in  manufacturing 
or  merchandising  knows  how  much 
he  is  going  to  make  annually  during  life. 
Much  less  does  he  know  how  much  he  will 
be  worth  when  he  dies.  Neither  does  the 
man  who  works  for  a  salary  or  practices 
some  profession  for  fees  know  what  his 
annual  income  will  be  even  during  the  fol- 
lowing decade.  Neither  one  nor  the  other 
knows  whether  he  will  die  a  millionaire  or  a 
pauper.  It  is  a  problem  too  complex  for 
any  human  mind  to  analyze.  It  is  less  cer- 
tain than  what  the  weather  will  be  on  this 
day  next  year,  because  it  is  the  resultant  of 
more  variable  factors. 

In  some  respects  there  is  more  hazard  in 
farming  than  in  manufacturing  or  in  mer- 
chandising, while  in  other  respects  there  is 
much  less.  The  profit  which  may  be  ob- 
tained from  farming  is  neither  easier  nor 
more  difficult  to  estimate  than  is  that  of 
117 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

other  commercial  enterprises.  However, 
there  is  no  business  in  which  more  foolish 
estimates  are  made  as  to  the  probable  profits, 
except,  perhaps,  in  mining. 

The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  not  to  give 
advice  as  to  possible  or  probable  profits,  but 
rather  to  point  out  the  general  character  of 
the  data  required  for  any  individual  prob- 
lem, where  the  data  may  be  obtained  and 
how  it  may  be  applied. 

There  are  two  forms  or  methods  of  stat- 
ing the  financial  gain  that  has  been  obtained 
from  farming  or  other  business  ventures 
during  a  year  or  other  specific  period.  The 
first  may  be  called  the  interest  on  the  invest- 
ment method,  and  the  second  the  labor  in- 
come method. 

With  the  interest  on  the  investment 
method,  all  expenses  may  be  subtracted 
from  all  the  sales.  From  the  cash  balance 
thus  obtained  the  increase  or  decrease  in 
inventory  may  be  added  or  subtracted.  This 
balance  may  then  be  divided  by  the  capital 
invested,  to  determine  the  rate  of  interest 
received. 

118 


HOW  TO  ESTIMATE  PROFITS 

The  rate  of  interest  method  is  the  usual 
method  in  the  commercial  world.  The 
prosperity  of  the  railroad  or  industrial  con- 
cern is  judged  by  the  rate  of  interest  it  pays 
its  stockholders  on  the  par  value  of  the 
stock.  The  stock  itself  takes  on  the  capital- 
ization in  accordance  with  the  present  and 
prospective  dividends.  The  fact  that  this 
method  is  generally  used  in  the  commercial 
world  is  evidence  that  it  is  well  suited  to  its 
needs. 

The  young  farmer  who  wishes  to  know 
whether  the  operation  of  a  given  tract  of 
land  in  a  certain  manner  offers  him  a  worthy 
opportunity  will  not  find  the  interest  on  the 
investment  method  the  best  suited  for  his 
purpose.  This  is  especially  true  when  ap- 
plied to  a  single  product.  For  example,  it 
may  be  shown  that  50  hens  will,  when 
properly  managed,  in  connection  with  other 
farm  enterprises,  return  a  remarkable  inter- 
est on  the  capital  employed.  It  does  not  fol- 
low, however,  that  a  man  can  make  a  living 
with  fifty  hens  or  even  500  hens.  If  a  man 
has  an  investment  of  $5,000,  on  which  he 
119 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

obtains  10  per  cent,  his  income  would  be 
$500.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  has  an  in- 
vestment of  $25,000  and  obtains  a  return  of 
only  6%,  his  income  is  $1,500,  or  three 
times  the  former  amount.  In  neither  case, 
however,  does  this  form  of  statement  tell  a 
man  how  much  of  his  income  is  due  to  his 
brain  and  brawn  and  how  much  to  the  capi- 
tal invested. 

What  the  young  farmer  wishes  to  know  is 
how  much  will  he  receive  for  his  own  time, 
energy  and  skill,  after  deducting  all  ex- 
penses and  a  reasonable  interest  charge  on 
his  investment — such  a  rate  of  interest  as  he 
could  get  by  placing  his  money  in  good 
securities  or  what  he  would  be  required  to 
pay  for  his  capital  if  he  borrowed  it.  This 
is  best  obtained  by  the  labor  income  method. 
With  this  method  all  expenses  are  sub- 
tracted from  all  sales  and  to  the  cash  bal- 
ance thus  obtained  is  added  or  subtracted 
the  increase  or  decrease  in  the  inventory. 
This  balance  may  be  called  the  farm  in- 
come. Thus  far  the  procedure  is  just  the 
same  as  the  interest  on  the  investment 
1 20 


HOW  TO  ESTIMATE  PROFITS 

method.  From  the  farm  income  is  now  sub- 
tracted a  reasonable  interest  on  the  invest- 
ment, the  balance  remaining  is  called  the 
labor  income.  This  is  the  return  which  the 
farmer  has  obtained  by  and  for  his  own 
efforts.  If  this  balance  is  zero,  then  he 
should  change  his  methods  or  get  into  some 
other  business. 

This  statement  of  his  income,  whatever 
it  may  be,  enables  him  to  compare  his  pros- 
perity with  that  of  the  man  who  is  employed 
upon  a  salary.  Here,  again,  however,  it  is 
difficult  to  make  comparisons  because  of  the 
differences  in  expenses  of  living.  The  chief 
difference,  however,  in  the  expense  of  the 
wage  earner  in  the  city  and  the  farmer  is  in 
the  matter  of  house  rent.  For  example,  if 
the  wage  earner  pays  $300  a  year  house  rent 
that  must  be  deducted  from  his  income  in 
comparing  it  with  the  labor  income  of  the 
farmer.  It  is  often  stated  that  the  farmer 
also  has  his  living  from  the  farm.  This  was 
much  more  true  formerly  than  it  is  at  pres- 
ent. Under  present  methods  of  distributing 
food  products  and  with  modern  types  of 
121 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

farming,  the  amount  of  food  supplied  the 
table  from  the  farm  is  comparatively  small. 
The  rancher  in  Montana  eats  foods  canned 
in  Maine  or  Delaware,  while  the  New 
Hampshire  farmer  buys  his  vegetables  rom 
Boston  commission  merchants.  The  Min- 
nesota farmer  cannot  supply  his  breakfast 
table  with  oranges,  grapefruit  or  oatmeal. 
Many  of  them  buy,  if  not  their  bread,  at 
least  their  flour,  and  also  their  butter.  The 
fact  that  the  city  man  indulges  in  high  liv- 
ing is  no  argument  in  favor  of  the  country 
man  expecting  less  wages.  Some  of  those 
things  which  are  necessary  to  make  the 
country  an  ideal  place  to  live  are  expensive. 
Some  of  them  are  more  expensive  to  obtain 
in  the  country  than  in  the  city,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, educational  facilities.  In  justifying 
his  purchase  of  an  automobile,  a  young 
farmer  recently  stated  that  his  wife  had  cer- 
tain cares,  responsibilities  and  even  priva- 
tions which  her  city  friends  did  not  have. 
He  thought  that  the  automobile  would  help 
to  offset  them. 

To  my  mind  there  is  no  more  ideal  place 
122 


HOW  TO  ESTIMATE  PROFITS 

to  live  and  rear  a  family  than  in  the  open 
country  when  the  conditions  are  what  they 
should  be  and  may  be.  I  believe,  however, 
it  is  well  to  insist  that  it  costs  something  to 
live  in  the  country  as  well  as  in  the  city  if 
one  lives  as  well  as  every  farmer  has  a  right 
to  expect  to  live. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  steps  necessary 
in  order  to  arrive  at  a  fair  estimate  of  the 
labor  income.  To  make  the  matter  con- 
crete, we  will  assume  a  farm  of  200  acres 
worth  $60  an  acre  located  in  central  Penn- 
sylvania on  a  limestone  clay  loam  soil  over 
1,000  feet  above  sea  level.  This  farm  is  to 
contain  20  acres  of  timber,  a  3o-acre  apple 
orchard  two  years  old,  40  acres  of  pasture, 
96  acres  of  cultivated  land  divided  into  six 
i6-acre  fields.  The  rest  of  the  200  acres 
consists  of  small  yards,  roadways  and  waste 
land.  One-half  of  each  of  the  six  i6-acre 
fields  is  to  consist  of  a  rotation  of  maize,  oats 
and  wheat,  each  one  year,  and  hay  three 
years,  the  latter  clover  and  timothy  followed 
by  timothy.  The  other  half  is  to  consist  of 
maize,  barley,  followed  by  alfalfa  four 
123 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

years.  In  the  young  orchard  there  will  be 
grown  for  a  few  years  potatoes,  tomatoes, 
cabbages  and  garden  peas.  After  the 
orchard  attains  a  size  which  forbids  these 
intertilled  crops,  a  portion  of  the  pasture 
may  be  broken  up  so  that  these  market  gar- 
den crops  may  be  raised.  There  will  be 
kept  six  horses,  20  milch  cows,  20  ewes  of 
some  mutton  breed  of  sheep,  five  brood  sows 
and  50  hens. 

First  of  all,  let  attention  be  called  to  the 
broad  knowledge  of  farming  required  to 
operate  this  moderate-sized  and  compara- 
tively simple  farm.  The  crops  to  be  raised 
are  maize,  oats,  wheat,  clover,  alfalfa,  tim- 
othy, potatoes,  tomatoes,  cabbages,  garden 
peas  and  apples.  The  animal  products  sold 
will  be  chiefly  butter  fat,  wool,  mutton,  veal, 
pork  and  eggs.  This  is  neither  a  long  nor 
complex  list  of  products.  They  are  all 
adapted  to  the  farm  which  the  writer  has  in 
mind.  Yet  the  man  who  operates  this  farm 
to  the  highest  success  will  need  to  have  a 
knowledge  of  agronomy,  or  the  raising  of 
field  crops,  of  horticulture,  animal  hus- 
124 


HOW  TO  ESTIMATE  PROFITS 

bandry,  including  poultry  husbandry  and 
dairying.  He  needs  to  have  a  good  under- 
standing of  the  principles  of  agricultural 
chemistry,  to  have  a  knowledge  of  how  to 
prevent  and  combat  fungous  diseases  and 
insect  enemies.  To  get  the  most  out  of  his 
timber  land  he  should  know  at  least  some  of 
the  first  principles  of  forestry,  and  if  he  has 
gained  some  instruction  in  the  study  of  land- 
scape gardening,  his  home  will  be  more 
attractive,  and  his  farm  a  source  of  greater 
pleasure  to  him. 

To  proceed  with  the  estimate,  the  first 
thing  to  be  done  is  to  make  a  record  of  the 
cropping  system,  giving  the  areas  and  the 
estimated  production  of  each  crop.  How 
is  the  yield  per  acre  to  be  determined? 
Clearly,  one  cannot  afford  to  estimate  his 
profits  on  the  basis  of  some  unusual  yields. 
If  one  could  be  assured  of  40  bushels  of 
wheat,  60  bushels  of  oats,  five  tons  of  hay, 
300  bushels  of  potatoes,  or  200  bushels  of 
apples  per  acre,  or  500  pounds  of  butter  fat 
per  cow,  or  150  eggs  per  hen  per  year,  there 
would  be  no  difficulty  about  obtaining  a 
125 


THE  YOUNG   FARMER 

snug  labor  income.  Such  results  are 
possible  and  are  appropriate  ideals  for 
which  to  strive,  but  are  not  safe  as  estimates 
on  which  to  do  business. 

The  year  books  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  contain  the  annual 
estimate  of  the  yields,  and  the  average  De- 
cember farm  price  of  staple  crops  by  states. 
These  figures  may  serve  as  a  basis  for  mak- 
ing estimates.  If  the  natural  conditions  are 
about  the  average  stated,  one  may  properly 
assume  that  he  can  obtain  an  increase  of 
50%.  He  may  even  hope  to  double  the  yield, 
although  it  is  not  safe  to  assume  such  an  in- 
crease in  making  an  estimate  of  profits.  If 
the  natural  conditions  are  more  favorable  or 
less  favorable  than  the  average,  he  must  take 
the  fact  into  consideration  in  his  estimates. 
In  the  same  way  he  may  consider  whether 
the  average  December  farm  price  represents 
fairly  his  expectation  of  the  price,  or 
whether  because  of  favorable  location  or 
superior  quality  of  the  article  purchased  he 
can  expect  higher  remuneration. 

It  is  here  assumed  that  the  young  farmer 
126 


is  himself  going  to  be  more  than  an  average 
farmer.  If  he  is  not  he  will  only  get  aver- 
age results,  in  which  case  his  labor  income 
will  be  only  that  of  the  ordinary  day 
laborer. 

To  repeat  the  idea  in  concrete  terms.  If 
the  young  farmer  is  located  in  central  Penn- 
sylvania and  finds  that  the  average  yield  of 
wheat  for  the  state  is  17  bushels  an  acre,  he 
may  safely  estimate  that  his  improved 
methods  will  bring  him  25  bushels  of  wheat 
to  the  acre.  He  may  even  hope  for  34 
bushels  per  acre.  At  the  Pennsylvania  sta- 
tion several  varieties  of  wheat  have,  during 
the  past  1 8  years,  averaged  over  30  bushels 
per  acre.  One  year  one  variety  produced 
43  bushels.  It  would  not  be  safe,  however, 
to  use  such  figures  in  estimating  profits. 

Having  outlined  the  cropping  system  and 
made  a  careful  estimate  of  the  total  annual 
production  of  each  crop,  the  next  step  is  to 
determine  the  amount  of  food  and  bedding 
required  for  the  live  stock.  From  this  data 
it  may  be  determined  what  products  will  be 
available  for  sale,  and  what  foodstuffs  must 
127 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

be  oought.  Thus,  it  may  be  found,  for  ex- 
ample, that  the  amount  of  oats  raised  just 
meets  the  requirement,  while  more  maize 
must  be  purchased,  together  with  nitroge- 
nous concentrates,  and  that  a  portion  of  the 
hay  is  available  for  sale.  In  the  farm  under 
consideration  there  will,  of  course,  be  wheat, 
potatoes,  tomatoes,  cabbages,  garden  peas 
and  the  animal  products  previously  men- 
tioned for  sale,  and  later  there  will  be 
apples  and  some  lumber  from  the  wood  lot 

The  data  are  now  at  hand  by  which  to  esti- 
mate the  total  receipts.  Having  made  the 
estimates  of  receipts,  the  expenses  are  esti- 
mated, and  the  difference  gives  the  cash 
balance,  if  there  is  any.  The  most  important 
items  of  expense  will  be  labor,  feed,  seeds, 
fertilizers,  harvesting  and  threshing  ex- 
penses, spraying  material,  shipping  pack- 
ages, blacksmithing  and  repairs.  After  all 
expenses  that  can  be  thought  of  are  included 
not  less  than  10%  should  be  added  for  in- 
cidental expenses. 

The  amount  of  commercial  or  natural 
fertilizers  to  be  purchased  is,  of  course, 
128 


HOW  TO  ESTIMATE  PROFITS 

related  to  the  yard  manure  which  will  be 
produced  on  the  farm;  therefore  some  esti- 
mate of  the  probable  amount  is  desirable. 
In  a  roughly  empirical  way  the  amount  of 
manure  produced  may  be  estimated  at  twice 
the  amount  of  dry  food  and  bedding  used, 
provided  it  is  hauled  daily  to  the  field. 
Where  stored  and  drawn  to  the  field  at 
stated  periods,  the  shrinkage  in  weight, 
although  not  necessarily  in  plant  food,  may 
be  as  much  as  one-half. 

The  estimate  of  what  the  inventory  should 
be  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  year  is 
not  so  simple  a  matter  as  it  may  at  first  seem 
to  be.  The  purpose  of  taking  the  inventory 
is  twofold :  First,  to  determine  whether  the 
inventory  has  increased  or  decreased,  and 
second,  to  determine  on  what  amount  of  cap- 
ital interest  is  to  be  calculated.  For 
example,  one  must  carry  forward  each  year 
seed  for  the  next  year's  crop.  Feed  must  be 
carried  over  to  feed  live  stock  until  other 
food  becomes  available,  and  there  must  be 
money  on  hand  with  which  to  pay  for  labor 
129 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

unless  there  is  a  cash  income  from  the  sale 
of  products  sufficient  to  care  for  the  labor 
bills. 

In  the  case  of  the  farm  under  considera- 
tion there  is  a  young  orchard  of  about  one 
thousand  trees.  This  orchard  is  not  bring- 
ing in  any  income,  but  there  is  a  constant 
expenditure  of  money  on  it,  and  a  constant 
increase  in  its  value.  While,  therefore,  it 
decreases  the  cash  income  it  increases  the 
farm  income  and  the  labor  income.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  increases  the  interest  charges 
because  the  plant  or  farm  is  increasing  in 
value.  How  much  will  it  increase  in  value? 
In  some  sections  it  is  customary  to  consider 
that  an  orchard  increases  in  value  $i  per 
tree  per  year.  If  this  is  a  correct  estimate, 
this  i,ooo-tree  orchard  will  increase  the 
value  of  the  farm  $1,000  a  year  until  it 
comes  into  full  bearing.  The  farm  under 
consideration  was  purchased  two  years  ago 
for  $9,500.  On  the  assumption  just  stated, 
at  the  end  of  15  years  from  date  of  purchase 
this  farm  should  be  worth  $25,000,  at  least 
$15,000  of  which  will  be  due  to  a  3O-acre 
130 


HOW  TO  ESTIMATE  PROFITS 

orchard.    This  is  at  the  rate  of  $500  an  acre 
for  the  orchard  itself. 

In  order  to  bring  out  some  of  the  phases 
of  the  inventory  more  clearly  the  following 
classification  of  items  is  given  below: 

INVENTORY 

A.    PLANT. 

The  real  estate,  200  acres  at  $60  per  acre. 
The  live  stock. 

Work  horses  and  breeding  stock. 
Machinery. 

B.    MATERIALS. 

Seeds,  potatoes,  oats,  maize,  wheat. 

Feed,  hay  for  cattle  and  sheep,  silage  for  cows,  maize  for 

pigs. 

Growing  wheat,  8  acres  at  $6  per  acre. 
Live  stock,  calves,  lambs  and  pigs. 

C.    SUPPLIES. 

Hay  and  oats  for  horses. 
Money  for  current  expenses. 

In  estimating  the  inventory  at  the  end  of 
the  year,  a  deduction  should  be  made  for  the 
decrease  in  the  value  of  the  live  stock  under 
the  plant  and  also  for  the  machinery.  Per- 
haps 5%  f°r  tne  liye  stock  and  10%  for  the 
machinery  and  tools  will  be  a  fair  deduc- 
tion. Under  materials  and  supplies  those 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

items  have  been  inventoried  which  are  to  be 
carried  over  each  year  from  the  preceding 
year.  In  the  case  of  seeds  the  amount 
required  must  be  deducted  from  the  amount 
sold,  or  they  must  appear  as  a  charge  in  the 
expense  account.  Ordinarily  they  are  car- 
ried over  from  year  to  year  and  thus  become 
a  part  of  the  permanent  investment.  Since 
on  the  farm  under  consideration  there  is  a 
considerable  monthly  income  from  the  sale 
of  butter  fat  and  eggs,  it  may  be  possible 
that  no  allowance  will  be  needed  in  the 
inventory  for  current  expenses,  although  it 
is  always  desirable  to  carry  a  bank  account 
in  order  to  be  able  to  make  favorable  pur- 
chases when  opportunity  offers. 

As  a  part  of  the  work  in  a  course  in  farm 
management,  the  writer  asked  each  student 
to  secure  the  financial  history  of  an  actual 
farm  covering  a  period  of  three  years.  The 
financial  history  of  30  farms  during  the 
years  1901  to  1903,  inclusive,  and  28  farms 
during  the  years  1902-1904,  inclusive,  was 
thus  obtained  and  is  given  herewith. 
132 


HOW  TO  ESTIMATE  PROFITS 


SUMMARY  OF  FINANCIAL  HISTORY  OF  FARMS 

Average   size  of  farm,   acres 143.21  133 

Average    area    in    crops     (includes    pas- 
ture),    acres 121.1  112 

Capital  at  end  of  three-year  period $14,009  $8,893 

Capital  at  beginning  three-year  period —  12,962  7,704 

Difference    $*,°47  $I,J89 

Interest  on  capital,  $13,485,  at  5  per  cent*  $674  $415 

Increase  in  capital  per  annum 349  396 

Average  yearly  receipts 3,613  2,208 

Average  yearly  disbursements jfi°7-  1,221 

Average  yearly  cash  balance 1,706  987 

Average  yearly  farm  income 2,055  1,383 

Average  yearly  labor  income I,3^  968 

These  figures  show  the  application  of 
principles  enunciated  in  this  chapter.  A 
careful  reader  will  have  no  difficulty  in 
recognizing  how  the  different  items  have 
been  obtained.  For  example,  the  difference 
between  the  receipts  and  disbursements  in 
the  first  column  gives  the  cash  balance  of 
$1,706.  The  farm  income,  $2,055,  is  obtain- 
ed by  adding  to  the  cash  balance  $349, 
which  is  the  annual  increase  in  the  capital. 
The  labor  income  is  obtained  by  subtract- 


•Obtained  by  dividing  by  two  the  sum  of  capital  at  begin- 
ning and  end  of  three-year  period. 

133 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

ing  from  the  farm  income  the  interest  on  the 
capital  at  five  per  cent.  The  amount  of 
capital  is  determined  by  dividing  by  two 
the  sum  of  the  inventories  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  period.* 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  gross  receipts, 
the  expenses,  the  farm  income  and  the  labor 
income  on  these  actual  farms  are  all  more 
closely  related  to  the  capital  invested  than 
the  size  of  the  farm.  Thus,  on  the  30  farms 
with  a  capitalization  of  about  $13,500,  the 
average  yearly  receipts  were  about  $25  an 
acre,  while  on  the  28  farms  with  a  capitali- 
zation of  about  $8,300,  the  average  yearly 
receipts  were  about  $16  an  acre.  Likewise 
on  the  high-priced  farms  the  labor  income 
was  approximately  $10  an  acre,  while  on  the 
lower  priced  ones  it  was  about  $7. 


*For  further  details  see  Hunt,  "How  to  Choose  a  Farm," 
Chaps.  X  and  XI. 


'34 


CHAPTER  XII 
GRAIN  AND  HAY  FARMING 

AN  important  and  primary  factor  in  the 
production  of  all  wealth  is  labor. 
Aside  from  the  professional  and  domestic 
classes,  the  people  of  the  world  devote  them- 
selves to  three  forms  of  work :  ( i )  Changes 
in  substance,  or  natural  products;  (2) 
changes  in  form,  or  mechanical  products; 
(3)  changes  in  place,  or  exchange  of  prod- 
ucts. The  second  of  these  forms  of  work 
gives  rise  to  manufacturing;  the  third,  to 
trade  and  commerce.  Under  the  first  sub- 
division two  classes  of  natural  products  may 
be  recognized;  first,  what,  for  want  of  a 
better  name,  may  be  called  chemical 
products,  such  as  ores,  coal  and  salt,  from 
which  are  derived  mining  and  the  metal- 
lurgical arts;  and  second,  vital  products,  or, 
in  other  words,  vegetation  and  animals.  It 
is  work  applied  to  the  production  of  vegeta- 
tion and  animals  that  gives  rise  to  agricul- 

135 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 


ture.     Agriculture  is  labor  applied  to  the 
production  of  living  things. 

KINDS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

The  industries  which  deal  with  the  pro- 
duction of  living  things  may  be  divided, 
theoretically,  largely  on  the  basis  of  the 
character  of  the  results,  but  to  some  extent 
upon  the  nature  of  the  activities  involved. 


Plant  Produc- 
tion 

(Soil  Cul- 
ture) 


Grain  Farming — Cereals  and 
grasses. 

Plantations — Cotton,  sugar,  to- 
bacco, coffee. 

Truck    Farming,    Market    Gar- 
dening— Vegetables. 
Fruit  Growing — Fruits. 

Forestry — Trees,  shrubs. 


Agricul- 
ture 


Horticul- 
ture 


Animal  Produc- 
tion 
(An.  Husbandry) 

Mixed  Husbandry 


r  Stock  Raising — Work,  meat,  fats,  hides. 

Stock  Feeding — Meat,  fats. 

Stock  Breeding — Animals. 

Dairy  Farming — Milk,  butter  and  cheese. 

Sheep  Husbandry — Wool  raising. 

Poultry  Raising — Eggs. 
.  Beekeeping — Honey. 


The   manner   in  which   this   theoretical 
classification  has  worked  out  in  actual  prac- 
tice will  be  indicated  in  some  measure  by 
the  inquiries  of  the  United  States  Census 
136 


GRAIN  AND  HAY  FARMING 


Bureau.  The  twelfth  census  has  classified 
farms  on  the  basis  of  their  principal  income. 
If  40%  or  more  of  the  gross  income  of  the 
farm  was  from  dairy  products,  it  was  called 
a  dairy  farm;  if  from  live  stock,  a  live  stock 
farm;  if  from  cotton,  a  cotton  farm.  If  no 
product  constituted  40%  of  the  gross 
receipts,  the  farm  was  classified  as  a  mis- 
cellaneous or  general  farm. 

In  1900  there  were  5,740,000  farms  in 
the  United  States,  which  were,  according  to 
the  rule  just  stated,  classified  as  follows : 

FARMS  CLASSIFIED  ACCORDING  TO  PRINCIPAL 
SOURCE  OF  INCOME 


Total  area, 
Kind  of  farm.          acres. 

Hay  and  grain 210,243,000 

Vegetables    10,157,000 

Fruits 6,150,000 

Live  stock 335,009,000 

Dairy  produce 43,284,000 

Tobacco    9,574,000 

Cotton   89,587,000 

Rice    1,088,000 

Sugar 2,689,000 

Flowers  and  plants  43,000 
Nursery  products  —  166,000 
Miscellaneous 113,144,000 


Total 


.844,000,000 

137 


Gross 

Average 

income 

size 

per 

Number. 

acres. 

farm. 

1,320,000 

159 

$760 

156,000 

65 

665 

82,000 

75 

915 

1,565,000 

227 

788 

358,000 

120 

787 

106,000 

90 

615 

1,072,000 

84 

430 

6,000 

190 

1,335 

7,000 

363 

5,317 

6,000 

7 

2,991 

2,000 

82 

4,971 

1,059,000 

107 

440 

5,740,000 

»47 

$656 

THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

Including  miscellaneous  or  general 
farms,  there  are  just  a  dozen  kinds  of  farms 
mentioned.  Of  this  number,  nine  kinds 
obtained  at  least  40%  of  their  products,  and 
probably  much  more,  from  vegetable  rather 
than  from  animal  forms.  However,  live 
stock  and  dairy  farms  constitute  about  one- 
third  of  the  total  number  of  farms,  and 
almost  one-half  the  farm  acreage.  There 
are  four  kinds  of  farms  on  which  the  pro- 
duction of  grain  and  hay  forms  an  impor- 
tant part  of  their  activities;  namely,  the  hay 
and  grain  farm,  the  live  stock  farm,  the 
dairy  farm,  and  general  farm.  These  con- 
stitute, in  the  aggregate,  75%  of  the  farms 
of  the  United  States,  and  by  virtue  of  their 
larger  area,  they  occupy  85%  of  the  total 
farm  area. 

GRAIN  AND  HAY  STATISTICS 

At  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  less 
than  one-half  the  area  of  the  United  States 
was  owned  in  farms.  Only  one-half  of  this 
farm  area  was  considered  to  be  under  culti- 
vation. The  total  area  in  cereals  was  one- 

138 


tenth  the  total  land  area,  while  3%  was 
devoted  to  hay  and  2%  to  all  other  crops 
except  pasture. 

Without  going  into  details,  it  may  be 
stated  with  reasonable  assurance  that:  (i) 
During  the  last  half  of  the  last  century,  the 
production  of  cereals  has  increased  much 
faster  than  the  population.  For  example, 
in  1850,  there  were  raised  in  the  United 
States  one  ton  of  cereal  grains  per  capita; 
by  1900  this  amount  had  increased  to  one 
and  one-half  tons  for  each  inhabitant. 

(2)  Since  the  number  of  persons  engaged 
in  agriculture  has  decreased  in  proportion 
to  population,  the  quantity  of  cereals  pro- 
duced in  proportion  to  persons  engaged  in 
agriculture   has   increased   in  still  greater 
ratio.     So  far,  therefore,  as  the  amount  of 
cereals  is  concerned,  the  farmer  has  been 
getting  an  increasingly  larger  return  for  his 
labor. 

(3)  The  quantity  of  cereals  has  increased 
in  proportion  to  the  arable  land.    This  may 
be  due  to  one  or  more  of  three  causes:  (a) 
greater  average  yield  per  acre;  (b)  greater 

139 


THE  YOUNG   FARMER 

proportion  of  cereals  to  other  crops;  or  (c) 
to  a  change  in  the  ratio  of  the  different 
cereal  crops.  The  following  table,  giving 
the  average  yield  of  grain,  reduced  to 
pounds  per  acre,  shows  not  only  how  the 
substitution  of  one  cereal  for  another  might 
affect  the  total  production  of  cereal  grains, 
but  also  suggests  to  the  young  farmer  how 
he  may  modify  the  total  product  of  his 
farm: 

Yield  Lb.  Lb. 

in  bu.  per  bu.  per  acre 

Maize 24.2  56  1355 

Barley  23.7  48  1138 

Rye 15.0  56  840 

Oats  26.2  32  838 

Wheat  13.2  60  792 

Rice  Paddy  746 

Buckwheat  14.0  48  672 

Yields  will  vary  relatively  in  different 
regions  and  with  different  types  of  soil,  and 
should  be  studied  with  reference  to  one's 
conditions. 

(4)  The  wheat  and  oat  crops  have  in- 
creased about  six  and  one-half  times  in  50 
years,  the  hay  crop  five  and  one-half  times, 
while  maize  has  increased  four  and  one-half 
times.  Cotton,  the  only  other  great  staple 
140 


GRAIN  AND  HAY  FARMING 

crop,  has  increased  four  times  in  the  same 
period.  The  oat  crop  has  increased  the 
most  rapidly  of  any  since  1880.  It  is  inter- 
esting, and  may  be  significant,  to  note  that, 
while  the  production  of  wheat  and  barley  in 
Great  Britain  has  decreased  about  one-half 
in  thirty  years,  the  production  of  oats  has 
increased  somewhat. 

(5)  The  greatest  rate  of  increase  in  the 
production  of  cereals  in  the  United  States 
during  the  last  half  century  has  taken  place 
since  1870.  This  increase  is  coincident  with 
three  other  facts  of  the  utmost  importance: 

(a)  The  development  of  the  central  West, 
a  treeless  plain — prior  to  this  period  much 
of  the  farm  land  in  the  United  States  had 
been  hewn  out  of  the  forest,  tree  by  tree; 

(b)  the  consolidation  of  the  steam  railways 
into  transcontinental  lines;  and  (c)  the  in- 
troduction   of    the   self-binding   harvester. 
Formerly  it  took  at  least  five  men  to  do  what 
is  done  today  by  one  man  in  the  harvesting 
of  cereals. 


141 


THE  YOUNG 


ADVANTAGES  OF  GRAIN  FARMING 

(1)  The  cost  of  land  excepted,  the  pro- 
duction of  hay  and  grain  requires  a  small 
outlay  of  money.      During  the   past  fifty 
years,  many  thousands  of  persons  have  been 
able  to  obtain  farms  of  160  acres  at  almost 
no  cost.    With  a  few  hundred  dollars  in- 
vested in  horses  and  tools  with  which  to 
plow  the  prairie  and  sow  the  seed,  these 
fortunate  persons  have  oftentimes  been  able 
to  pay  the  whole  of  their  expenses,  capital 
included,  from  the  first  crop.    The  renter 
who  operates  a  hay  and  grain  farm  usually 
has  but  a  small  capital  invested  in  his  busi- 
ness. 

(2)  The  cereals  bring  a  quick  return. 
Wheat  may  be  sown  in  September  and  sold 
in  July;  maize  may  be  planted  in  May  and 
sold  in  November;  oats  may  be  planted  in 
April  and  sold  in  August.    The  short  period 
between  seed  time  and  harvest  makes  the 
oat  crop  a  favorite  one  among  renters.    On 
the  other  hand,  it  takes  from  three  to  seven 
years  to  produce  a  marketable  horse.    It 

142 


GRAIN  AND  HAY  FARMING 

may  take  ten  to  fifteen  years  to  begin  to  real- 
ize on  an  apple  orchard. 

(3)  The  products  are  not  easily  perish- 
able,    and    hence    can    be    held    almost 
indefinitely.    The  development  of  the  mag- 
nificent elevator  system,    based   upon   the 
principle  that  the  cereals  can  be  handled 
like  water,  greatly  simplifies  the  holding 
and  preservation  of  these  staple  products. 

(4)  The   products   are   in  constant   de- 
mand, and  hence  they  always  find  a  market. 

Agricultural  commodities  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes,  depending  upon  the  area 
which  controls  the  price  of  the  commodity, 
as  follows:  (a)  price  units  world-wide,  as 
wheat,  cotton,  pork;  (b)  price  units  local  to 
large  districts — products  too  bulky  to  ship 
long  distances — such  as  hay,  potatoes  and 
apples;  (c)  price  units  local  to  relatively 
small  areas,  such  as  strawberries  and  green 
vegetables.  It  is  obvious  that  the  larger  the 
area  which  controls  the  price,  the  more 
constant  will  be  the  demand. 

H3 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

OBJECTIONS  TO  GRAIN  FARMING 

(1)  It  exhausts   the  soil.     About  two- 
thirds  of  the  wheat  of  the  United  States  is 
consumed  outside  the  county  in  which  it 
is  raised. 

(2)  It  requires  a  large  quantity  of  land 
to  produce  a  competence.     Land  must  be 
low  in  price,  or  the  interest  on  the  money 
invested    in    the    land    will    consume    the 
profits.    The  relation  of  crop  to  income  is 
suggested  by  comparing  the  gross  returns 
from  an  acre  of  potatoes  or  tobacco  with 
an  acre  of  maize.     The  average  gross  in- 
come during  a  decade  was,  from  an  acre  of 
maize,   $9.50;   an   acre   of   potatoes,   $38; 
and  from  an  acre  of  tobacco,  $61.50. 

(3)  Only  such  part  of   the  land  as  is 
suited  to  tillage  can  be  used. 

(4)  The  marketing  of  cereals  requires 
the  transportation  of  bulky  products.    Hay 
is  handicapped  much  more  seriously.    The 
distance  a  product  can  be  shipped  depends 
somewhat  on  the  price  per  pound  received 
for  it.    If  it  costs  one  cent  a  pound  to  ship 

144 


GRAIN  AND  HAY  FARMING 

maize  to  a  grain  market,  obviously  it  cannot 
be  transported  without  loss  when  it  brings 
only  50  cents  a  bushel.  On  the  other  hand, 
two  cents  a  pound  may  easily  be  paid  for 
shipping  butter  which  is  worth  25  cents  a 
pound.  The  transportation  of  $2,000  worth 
of  maize  to  a  railway  station  ten  miles  dis- 
tant is  a  laborious  and  expensive  operation, 
but  when  this  same  maize  is  turned  into 
beef  or  pork,  it  will  transport  itself  to  the 
station  with  comparatively  little  trouble. 
Notwithstanding  the  excellent  transporta- 
tion facilities  which  the  farmers  of  the 
United  States  enjoy,  80%  of  the  maize  is 
consumed  in  the  county  in  which  it  is  raised. 
Cereal  production  demands  better  trans- 
portation facilities  than  cotton  farming, 
tobacco  growing  or  the  rearing  of  domestic 
animals. 

(5)  Capital  must  lie  idle  much  of  the 
time.  The  self-binding  harvester  or  the  hay 
rake  is  only  used  a  few  weeks,  or  perhaps 
more  often  only  a  few  days,  each  year.  A 
cream  separator  or  a  churn  may  be  used 
every  day  in  the  year.  In  the  first  instance, 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

there  is  not  only  interest  on  unemployed  cap- 
ital, but  the  capital  is  actually  deteriorating 
through  nonuse. 

(6)  The  production  of  hay  and  grain 
does  not  give  continuous  employment.    The 
slightest    consideration    of    the    following 
table  must  show  that  unless  live  stock  is 
kept,  there  are  considerable  periods  of  the 
year  in  which  very  little  labor  is  required, 
while  at  other  times  considerable  work  is 
necessary  to  prevent  loss. 

TABLE    SHOWING    THE    AVERAGE    ACREAGE    PER 
FARM    OF   PRINCIPAL    CROPS. 

Wis-        Vir- 
New  York      Ohio         consin      ginia 

Maize 3  13  9  n 

Wheat    2  12  3  6 

Oats    5  4  14  i 

Barley,  rye  or  buckwheat —       2  50 

Hay  and  forage 23  u  14  4 

Potatoes,     beans     or     other 

vegetables  3121 

Fruits   2  2  o  i 

Miscellaneous  crops 2102 

Pasture,     wood     or     unim- 
proved  land 58  45  70  93 

Total  size  of  farm 100  89  117  119 

(7)  Much  depends  upon  natural  forces. 
While  there  is  opportunity  for  the  use  of 
knowledge  and  judgment  in  the  production 

146 


GRAIN  AND  HAY  FARMING 

of  high-grade  seeds  and  even  of  large  yields, 
there  is  not  the  same  scope  for  skill  that 
there  is  in  some  other  lines  of  agricultural 
enterprise.  Skill  means  the  capacity  to  do 
something  difficult,  and  the  more  effort 
required  to  produce  an  object  the  more 
value  it  has,  provided  its  utility  is  unlim- 
ited. The  farming  which  requires  the  most 
skill  pays  the  best  if  one  has  the  skill  to 
apply  to  it.  This  is  because  those  who  do 
not  have  the  requisite  skill  are  usually  un- 
successful. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  COST  OF  FARMING  OPERA- 
TIONS 

SEVERAL  millions  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  United  States,  not  to  mention  those 
of  other  countries,  are  engaged  each  year  in 
the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  the  cereal  and 
forage  crops  and  on  the  work  of  seeding  and 
harvesting  them.  The  welfare  of  one- 
third  the  population  is  directly  and  that  of 
the  other  two-thirds,  although  less  directly, 
is  quite  as  surely  dependent  upon  the  effec- 
tiveness of  this  effort.  If,  for  example,  as 
sometimes  happens,  one-third  the  popula- 
tion receives  on  account  of  untoward  sea- 
sonal conditions  but  four-fifths  of  the  usual 
product,  everyone  must  suffer  on  account  of 
this  unrewarded  labor.  Many,  perhaps 
most,  financial  panics  have  their  origin  in 
crop  failures  aided,  doubtless,  by  an  im- 
proper financial  system. 

Although  widely  and  sometimes  bitterly 
discussed,  little  is  really  known  concerning 
the  relation  between  the  effort  expended  and 
148 


COST  OF  FARMING  OPERATIONS 

the  returns  obtained  in  producing  the  great 
staple  farm  products;  yet  one  of  the  most 
important  and  vital  considerations  in  the 
organization  of  a  farm  enterprise  is  the  in- 
come, both  gross  and  net,  which  may  be 
expected  from  the  different  crops  contem- 
plated. Obviously  the  yield  and  price  of 
the  several  crops  will  vary  with  the  locality 
and  with  the  season.  It  is,  therefore,  im- 
possible to  predict  for  any  year  either  what 
yield  may  be  obtained  or  what  price  will  be 
secured.  If,  however,  a  sufficient  number 
of. years  are  selected,  an  average  may  be 
found  which  will  form  a  basis  for  calculat- 
ing the  probable  result  for  another  series  of 
years.  The  following  table  gives  the  yield 
and  the  average  farm  values  per  acre  for 
five  staple  crops  for  five  years,  1905-1909 
inclusive,  for  the  United  States  and  for  four 
widely  separated  states,  viz.,  Pennsylvania. 
Iowa,  Texas  and  Oregon. 

AVERAGE   YIELD  PER  ACRE,   1905-1909. 

Pennsylvania     Iowa  Texas       Oregon 

Maize,  bu. 36.6  33.4  ai.i  27.3 

Wheat,  bu. 17.8  15.5  9.6  20.6 

Oats,  bu.  28.9  28.9  26.6  32.8 

Potatoes,  bu. 84.4  85.8  67.0  119.0 

Hay,  tons 1.39  1.56  1.32  2.11 

149 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

AVERAGE   FARM   VALUE   PER  ACRE,   1905-1909. 

Pennsylvania  Iowa  Texas  Oregon 

Maize $22.59  $13.80  $12.17  $19.58 

Wheat    16.61  12.42  9.11  16.10 

Oats    *3-33  9-28  *2-97  15.20 

Potatoes   55-87  44-75  65.15  71.18 

Hay 18.74  10.13  13-92  19.60 

Such  figures  as  the  above  may  be  com- 
piled by  anyone  at  any  time  for  any  year  or 
series  of  years  from  the  yearbooks  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
They  form  a  fairly  sound  basis  for  calculat- 
ing the  gross  income  which  may  be  expected 
from  the  staple  farm  crops,  particularly  for 
the  cereals,  potatoes,  hay,  cotton  and 
tobacco.  Five  questions,  however,  present 
themselves,  which  should,  as  far  as  possible, 
be  settled  before  applying  them  to  an 
individual  problem. 

(1)  How  nearly  do  the  conditions,  espe- 
cially those  of  soil  and  climate,  of  the  given 
location  correspond  to  the  averages  of  the 
state?    The  question  can  be  settled  only  by 
a  thorough  study  of  soils  and  their  crop 
adaptation.    It  is  a  matter  requiring  study, 
experience  and  judgment. 

(2)  How  much  larger  yields  may  be  ex- 
pected   on    account    of    better    methods 

150 


COST  OF  FARMING  OPERATIONS 

employed?  It  is  here  that  most  mistakes  are 
made  in  estimating  possible  farm  profits. 
Necessarily,  all  statistical  averages  of  pro- 
duction are  much  below  those  which  an  en- 
terprising farmer  considers  an  average  crop 
and  habitually  produces.  Not  more  than 
50%  increase  upon  these  figures,  however, 
should  be  anticipated  by  reason  of  the  im- 
proved methods  which  one  is  going  to 
employ. 

While  the  average  yield  of  maize,  even  in 
the  so-called  corn  states,  is  not  far  from  30 
bushels  an  acre,  and  while  it  is  quite  com- 
mon for  good  farmers  to  produce  60  to  75 
bushels  of  maize  per  acre,  it  would  not  be 
safe  to  assume  a  yield  of  more  than  45  bush- 
els unless  the  conditions  are  more  than 
ordinarily  favorable. 

The  application  of  the  averages  given  on 
pages  149-150  to  an  individual  farm  enter- 
prise may  be  illustrated  by  calculating  the 
possible  results  which  might  be  obtained 
on  80  acres  of  arable  land  in  Iowa  and 
Pennsylvania  with  the  four  great  soil  pro- 
ducts of  northern  United  States. 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 


, Iowa ^  , —  Pennsylvania  — N 

Acres              Income  Acres             Income 

Maize 40                $552.00  15                 $340.85 

Oats 20                   185.60  15                   200.25 

Wheat    5                     62.10  15                   249.25 

Hay 15                   151-95  35                   655.90 


Total  ------    80  $951.65  80  $1,446.25 

If  50%  is  added  for  the  increased  yields 
which  may  be  expected  on  account  of  the 
employment  of  better  methods,  the  total 
yield  from  80  acres  of  arable  land  would 
become  for  Iowa  $1,428  and  for  Pennsyl- 
vania $2,169.  This  does  not  mean  that 
farming  is  necessarily  more  profitable  in 
Pennsylvania  than  in  Iowa.  Not  only 
may  the  cost  of  cultivating  an  acre  of 
arable  land  be  greater  in  Pennsylvania, 
but  usually  a  larger  territory  must  be 
owned  in  order  to  obtain  80  acres 
of  arable  land.  Eighty  acres  of  these 
four  crops  is  probably  as  often  grown  on  a 
farm  of  100  acres  in  Iowa  as  on  one  of  160 
acres  in  Pennsylvania.  The  total  farm 
acreage  in  Iowa  is,  in  round  numbers,  35 
millions;  in  Pennsylvania,  19  millions.  In 
Iowa  about  one-half  the  farm  area  is  in  the 
152 


•  3 


COST  OF  FARMING  OPERATIONS 

farm  crops  under  consideration,  while  in 
Pennsylvania  these  four  crops  occupy  only 
one-third  the  farm  area. 

(3)  Will  there  be  a  general  increase  or 
decrease  in  the  price  of  crops  during  the 
coming  years? 

The  following  table  gives  the  average 
farm  price  for  Missouri  by  five-year 
periods. 

THE   AVERAGE    DECEMBER   FARM   PRICE   BY 

PREVIOUS    DECADES    COMPARED    WITH 

AVERAGE   OF  FIVE   YEARS,    1906-10. 

1866  1875  1886  1896  1906 

to  to  to  to  to 

1875  1885  1895  1905  1910 

cts.  cts.  cts.  cts.  cts. 

Maize,   bu.    40  33  33  35  49 

Wheat,   bu. 103  87  64  71  87 

Oats,   bu. 30  27  26  27  39 

Potatoes,  bu. 57  48  49  53  68 

Hay,  ton  902  799  704  700  875 

An  examination  of  the  last  column  shows 
that  the  average  price  of  these  staple  farm 
products  has  been  considerably  greater  dur- 
ing five  recent  years  than  during  the 
previous  thirty  years.  Will  this  increase  in 
price  continue,  or  will  there  be  a  series  of 
years  of  unusually  low  prices  which  will 

153 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

bring  the  average  price  of  the  decade  down 
to  that  of  the  previous  three  decades?  Few 
persons  will  care  to  venture  an  answer  to 
this  question,  which  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance to  all  farmers  and  especially  to 
the  beginner. 

(4)  The  figures  employed  are  taken  from 
the  yearbook  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  are  the  estimated 
farm  price  on  December   i   of  each  year. 
Can  the  commodities  be  sold  for  the  Decem- 
ber farm  price?    Will  potatoes  sold  at  the 
time    of    digging    bring    less     than     the 
December  price?     Will   wheat  or  maize 
held  until  May  bring  a  higher  price?    To 
what  extent,  by  the  judicious  holding  of 
products,  can  advance  in  price  be  obtained? 

(5)  Will  the  products  be  sold  for  cash, 
or  may  they  be  turned  into  animal  products 
at  an  increased  profit?    In  some  sections  of 
the     United     States    animals    are     reared 
primarily  because  of  the  increased  profit 
due   to   manufacturing  soil   products   into 
animal  products;  in  other  regions,  however, 
they  are  kept  primarily  for  the  purpose  ot 

154 


COST  OF  FARMING  OPERATIONS 

maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  only 
incidentally  on  account  of  the  increased 
profits. 

COST  OF  PRODUCTION 

For  a  number  of  reasons  it  is  difficult  to 
determine  the  cost  of  growing  farm  crops. 
One  reason  deserves  to  be  especially  em- 
phasized. In  any  business  enterprise  it  may 
be  necessary  to  run  at  a  loss,  because  to  stop 
would  entail  a  still  greater  loss.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  in  farming,  where  men  are 
employed  by  the  month  in  order  that  they 
may  be  had  when  needed.  Since  they  are 
receiving  pay,  it  is  better  that  such  men 
should  be  employed  some  days  at  farm 
operations  which  return  only  a  portion  of 
their  wages  rather  than  not  to  have  them 
employed  at  all.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, therefore,  the  cost  of  producing  a 
given  crop  may  be  greater  than  is  indicated 
by  the  time  actually  employed  in  its 
production. 

Many  other  factors  also  enter,  as  the 
average  number  of  hours  per  day  which  it 

155 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

is  possible  to  work.  This  is  greatly  influ- 
enced by  weather  conditions.  The  Minne- 
sota station  determined  that  the  working 
day  on  about  thirty  farms  in  that  state 
varied  from  seven  and  one-half  to  eight  and 
one-half  hours,  with  two  to  three  and  one- 
half  hours  on  Sunday.  The  average  length 
of  the  working  day  for  horses  varied  from 
3.1  to  3.3  hours. 

The  cost  for  labor  of  cultivating  a  given 
area  of  land  will  depend  not  only  on  the 
crop  or  crops  to  be  raised,  the  climate,  the 
topography  and  character  of  the  soil,  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  fields  and  the  system 
of  cropping,  but  also  upon  the  man's  ability 
for  organization.  It  is  said  that  the 
European  farmers,  and  even  the  farmers 
from  eastern  Canada,  are  several  years  in 
adjusting  themselves  to  farming  in  western 
Canada.  When  the  farmers  from  Iowa, 
Kansas,  Nebraska  or  surrounding  states 
move  into  western  Canada  with  their  three- 
horse  teams  and  other  suitable  equipment, 
applying  their  thorough  knowledge  of 


COST  OF  FARMING  OPERATIONS 

prairie  farming,  they  are  at  once  successful. 
The  man  is  thus  an  important  factor. 

TIME  REQUIRED  FOR  CULTURAL  OPERATIONS 

The  following  table  will  be  helpful  as 
showing  time  required  to  perform  certain 
operations,  since  it  is  a  record  of  labor  ac- 
tually employed  on  a  field  of  18  acres  of 
easily  tilled  land  in  central  Ohio.  All  labor 
was  employed  at  prices  named,  board  for 
man  and  food  for  horses  being  furnished  in 
addition  at  the  prices  estimated.  The  owner 
of  the  land  furnished  the  horse  for  the 
harvester. 

Plowing    7.5  days  at  $2        $15.00 

Harrowing 3      days  at  2            6.00 

Planting  2      days  at  2            4.00 

Cultivating  (4  times) 7      days  :t  2           14.00 

Cultivating  with  harvester 6      days  at  i             6.00 

Husking  and  cribbing  by  the  job —  45-54 

Estimated  cost  of  board 25^2  days  7.95 

Estimated  team  maintenance 25^2  days  4.90 

$103.39 

According  to  these  figures  the  cost  for 
labor  of  raising  the  crop  and  the  cost  of 
harvesting  was  almost  exactly  the  same,  each 
being  a  little  less  than  $3  an  acre. 

157 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

THE  COST  OF  PRODUCING  FARM  CROPS 
The  Minnesota  station  has  determined 
the  cost  of  growing  the  staple  farm  crops 
on  45  farms  in  different  sections  of  the 
State.  The  total  expense  per  acre  for  an 
average  of  six  years  is  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table,  not  including  land  rental  or  cost 
of  marketing. 

COST  OF  PRODUCING  FARM  CROPS  IN  MINNESOTA. 

Spring  wheat,  land  fall  plowed $5-54 

Oats,   land  fall    plowed 5.80 

Barley,  land  spring  plowed 6.89 

Maize,  husked  from  standing  stalks 9.41 

Hay,  timothy  and  clover 3.68 

Potatoes,  land  not  fertilized 23-36 

Potatoes,  land  fertilized 34-72 

Some  years  ago  the  writer  made  an  esti- 
mate of  the  cost  of  producing  maize,  oats, 
wheat  and  clover  hay  in  a  four-course 
rotation  on  a  tenant  farm  in  central  Penn- 
sylvania. The  soil  was  a  heavy  clay  and 
required  plowing  for  each  crop,  except,  of 
course,  the  hay  crop,  one  acre  a  day  being 
considered  a  good  day's  work. 

Counting  the  expense  of  man  and  team  at 
$2  per  day,  the  labor  cost  per  acre  was 
found  to  be  $7  for  maize,  $5.10  for  both 

158 


COST  OF   FARMING  OPERATIONS 

wheat  and  oats,  and  $2.30  for  hay,  or  an 
average  of  about  $4.90  per  acre  for  the  four 
crops.  The  interest  on  the  capital  invested 
in  operating  this  farm,  exclusive  of  the  land, 
was  estimated  at  $1.45  per  acre. 

INFLUENCE  OF  YIELD  UPON  THE  COST  OF 

PRODUCTION 

The  Illinois  station  has  prepared  a  set  of 
estimates  upon  the  cost  of  producing  an 
acre  of  maize,  showing  variations  in  cost 
due  to  differences  in  yield.  In  these  esti- 
mates, instead  of  making  a  charge  for  the 
actual  cost  of  manure  or  fertilizer  applied, 
an  estimate  is  made  of  the  value  of  the  plant 
food  removed. 

COST  OF  PRODUCING  ONE  ACRE  OF  MAIZE  IN 

ILLINOIS  AS  MODIFIED  BY  YIELD. 

Yield  Yield  Yield  Yield 

50  bu.  75  bu.  100  bu.  35  bu. 

Disking $0.40  $0.40  $0.40  $0.40 

Plowing   i.oo  i.oo  i.oo  i.oo 

Preparation .75  .75  .75  .75 

Planting .15  .15  .15  .15 

Seed    ._ .35  .35  .35  .35 

Cultivation    1.00  i.oo  i.oo  i.oo 

Plant  food 1.02  1.53  2.04  .71 

Husking  1.25  1.87  2.50  .88 

Marketing   i.oo  1.50  2.00  .70 


Cost  per  acre $6.92  $8.55  $10.19  $5-94 

Cost  per  bushel .14  .11  .10  .17 

159 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

The  average  yield  per  acre  in  Illinois  for 
12  years  preceding  date  of  this  estimate 
was  35  bushels  per  acre;  the  average  price 
per  bushel  during  the  same  period  was  32 
cents. 

LABOR  COST  OF  PRODUCING  A  BUSHEL  OF 
GRAIN 

Not  counting  rent  of  land  or  interest  on 
capital  invested  in  equipment,  nor  deprecia- 
tion of  soil  fertility,  it  has  been  shown  that 
under  favorable  conditions,  the  labor  cost 
of  growing  and  harvesting  an  acre  of  wheat 
or  oats  may  be  as  low  as  $4.50,  and  that  of 
maize  as  low  as  $_$  per  acre.  Assuming  the 
average  labor  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of 
wheat  or  oats  at  $5.50  and  of  maize  at  $6 
per  acre,  and  taking  the  average  yields  per 
acre  for  a  series  of  years  to  be  13.8  for  wheat, 
30.9  bushels  for  oats  and  24.9  bushels  for 
maize,  the  average  labor  cost  per  bushel 
will  be:  Wheat,  40  cents;  oats,  17^  cents; 
and  maize,  28  cents. 

The  data  given  in  this  chapter  are  to  be 
accepted  as  suggestive  rather  than  as  deter- 
160 


COST  OF  FARMING  OPERATIONS 

minative.  The  chief  purpose  in  presenting 
them  is  to  place  before  the  young  farmer 
an  appreciation  of  some  of  the  problems 
involved  in  the  production  of  the  chief  and 
basic  agricultural  commodities.  The  young 
farmer's  success  will  be  modified  by  the 
role  which  they  occupy  in  his  farming  sys- 
tem and  by  his  ability  to  adjust  them  to  the 
economic  conditions  in  which  he  may  find 
himself  placed.  A  thorough  understanding 
of  the  principle  underlying  the  data  sub- 
mitted will  go  far  toward  enabling  him  to 
make  this  adjustment,  although  none  of  the 
illustrations  given  may  have  been  obtained 
under  conditions  identical  to  his  own. 


161 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE   PLACE   OF    INTENSIVE 
FARMING 

THE  doctrine  of  the  survival  of  the  most 
fit  applies  equally  to  the  field  of  biol- 
ogy and  to  the  field  of  economics.  The  gen- 
eral introduction  of  vegetables  and  fruits 
into  the  human  dietary  has,  by  banishing  the 
loathsome  diseases  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
greatly  increased  human  efficiency.  It  fol- 
lows that  those  peoples  or  nations  who 
employ  vegetables  and  fruits  in  abundance, 
other  things  being  equal,  will  be  most  fit  to 
survive  and  must  outstrip  others  less  fortu- 
nately situated.  We  may  for  this  reason 
alone  look  forward  to  the  increasing  im- 
portance of  vegetable  growing  and  fruit 
raising;  but  there  is  a  more  obvious  and 
perhaps  more  direct  reason.  There  is  in  the 
production  of  vegetables,  at  least,  a  method 
of  satisfying  the  dietetic  needs  of  an  increas- 
ing population.  The  employment  of  a  part 
of  the  area  now  in  cereals  and  forage  crops 
162 


PLACE  OF  INTENSIVE  FARMING 

for  the  production  of  potatoes,  cabbages, 
legumes,  roots  and  tomatoes  is  one  of  the 
most  ready  means  of  increasing  the  food 
supply.  Whether  such  substitution  will  be 
advantageous  to  the  human  race  depends, 
however,  not  so  much  upon  the  food  returns 
from  a  given  area  of  land  as  upon  the 
products  from  a  given  amount  or  unit  of 
labor. 

KINDS  OF  HORTICULTURE 

In  that  form  of  intensive  agriculture  to 
which  is  given  the  designation  horticulture, 
there  may  be  recognized  several  more  or 
less  distinct  divisions,  as  fruit  growing, 
market  gardening,  truck  farming  and 
floriculture.  Each  has  its  own  special  prob- 
lems, based  upon  conditions  of  culture  and 
market.  While,  as  in  all  classifications, 
there  is  more  or  less  overlapping,  the 
tendency  is  for  them  to  become  more  and 
more  distinct.  The  market  gardener  is  the 
producer  of  vegetables  for  a  local  market, 
while  the  truck  farmer  produces  similar 
products  for  a  larger  or  wider  distribution. 
163 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

The  former  grows  a  great  variety  of 
products,  disposing  of  them  in  relatively 
small  quantity,  not  infrequently  directly  to 
the  consumer.  The  latter  raises  a  few 
highly  specialized  crops  which  he  sells  in 
gross,  usually  through  a  commission  mer- 
chant. Truck  farming  has  developed  since 
1860,  in  consequence  of  the  growth  of  large 
cities,  which  require  enormous  supplies  of 
vegetables  of  fairly  uniform  quality,  and  on 
account  of  the  continuous  demand  for  fresh 
vegetables  as  nearly  as  possible  throughout 
the  year.  Watermelons  and  sweet  potatoes 
can  be  raised  in  the  southern  states  and  laid 
down  in  New  York  City  or  Boston  more 
cheaply  than  they  can  be  raised  in  the 
suburbs  of  these  cities,  and,  what  is  equally 
important,  they  will  be  of  superior  quality. 
The  extension  of  railway  facilities,  the  in- 
troduction of  refrigerator  cars  and  the 
building  of  cold  storage  plants  has  made  it 
possible  to  grow  in  one  climate  products 
to  be  consumed  in  another.  Cold  storage 
has  enabled  the  fruit  growers  of  Cali- 
fornia to  supply  the  eastern  markets  with 
164 


PLACE  OF  INTENSIVE  FARMING 

peaches  and  other  fresh  fruit.  Chicago, 
to  give  only  one  example,  begins  to  receive 
strawberries,  cabbages  and  tomatoes  from 
the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  early  in 
the  year  and  continues  to  receive  these 
products,  until  finally  they  are  being  shipped 
late  in  the  summer  from  the  shores  of  Lake 
Superior.  It  is  estimated  that  the  change  of 
locality  from  which  these  products  come, 
travels  northward  at  the  rate  of  from  13  to 
15  miles  a  day. 

IMPORTANT  FACTORS  IN  INTENSIVE  FARMING 

In  the  neighborhood  of  large  cities,  nota- 
bly in  the  environs  of  Paris,  market  garden- 
ers often  produce  their  vegetables  in  made 
soil.  The  local  character  of  the  soil  under 
such  conditions  is  a  matter  of  comparative 
indifference,  since  a  board  floor  would 
answer  every  requirement  as  a  resting  place 
for  the  artificial  soil.  The  large  expense 
in  preparing  and  constantly  renewing  the 
seed  bed  is  only  economically  possible,  how- 
ever, where  proximity  to  a  large  city  out- 
weighs all  other  considerations. 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

Ordinarily  climatic  and  soil  adaptation 
are  prime  factors  in  successful  horticulture 
—much  more  than  in  any  other  branch  of 
agriculture.  Each  fruit  has  a  restricted 
climatic  range,  and  in  most  cases  the  num- 
ber of  soil  types  on  which  a  given  fruit  can 
be  made  a  commercial  success  is  likewise 
limited.  Thus,  in  general,  apples  and  pears 
require  heavier  soils  than  peaches.  Success 
in  commercial  apple  growing  requires  even 
greater  discrimination,  since  different  varie- 
ties of  apples  demand  different  soil  condi- 
tions. Thus  Baldwins  are  grown  the  most 
successfully  where  a  northern  climate  is 
modified  by  proximity  to  the  Great  Lakes. 
Rhode  Island  Greenings  will  succeed  on 
soils  too  heavy  for  many  other  varieties. 
The  York  Imperial  has  not  yet  achieved  a 
great  commercial  success  save  on  one  type  of 
soil.  Some  varieties  of  apples  are  much 
more  restricted  in  their  adaptation  than 
others.  Thus,  while  the  King  is  quite 
restricted,  the  Ben  Davis  has  a  fairly  wide 
cultural  adaptation.  No  one  should  plant 
an  orchard  until  he  has  made  a  thorough 
1 66 


PLACE  OF  INTENSIVE  FARMING 

study  of  his  soil  and  climatic  conditions  and 
has  received  the  highest  possible  expert 
assistance  in  choosing  the  varieties  best 
adapted  to  his  conditions. 

There  is  an  increasing  tendency  to 
specialize  in  vegetable  growing.  The  pro- 
duction of  celery,  onions,  muskmelons, 
watermelons,  cabbages,  cauliflowers,  toma- 
toes and  sweet  corn,  to  mention  only  some  of 
the  most  striking  examples,  are  becoming 
more  and  more  localized.  Even  where 
vegetables  and  flowers  are  grown  under 
glass,  not  only  is  each  house  devoted  to  a 
single  species,  but,  notably  in  the  case  of 
roses,  growers  are  restricting  themselves 
more  and  more  to  a  few  varieties.  This  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  impossible  to  give 
in  one  house,  or  even  in  one  establishment, 
the  special  set  of  conditions  required  for  the 
most  economic  development  of  each  species 
or  variety  of  plant,  just  as  in  the  open  air 
the  natural  conditions  are  best  adapted  to  a 
limited  number  of  horticultural  products. 

So  much  being  admitted,  it  follows  that 
it  is  folly  to  attempt  to  grow  plants  under 
167 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

unfavorable  climatic  and  soil  conditions 
when  competing  in  the  same  market  with 
those  possessing  favorable  ones.  It  is  true, 
of  course,  that  where  one  man  fails  another 
often  succeeds,  but  this  is  no  reason  why  a 
man  should  apply  his  talents  under  unfa- 
vorable circumstances.  In  fact,  one  of  the 
important  attributes  of  most  successful  men 
is  their  ability  to  recognize  and  apply  their 
energies  under  conditions  which  will  give 
them  the  most  effective  return  for  a  given 
effort.  There  is  no  virtue  in  unnecessary 
toil.  Progress  in  any  enterprise,  as  progress 
in  the  human  race,  can  be  accomplished 
only  in  reducing  the  amount  of  labor 
required  to  produce  a  desired  result. 

All  this  is  axiomatic.  The  purpose  of 
emphasizing  it  here  is  that  it  is  fundamental 
to  the  success  of  those  who  attempt  to  pro- 
duce horticultural  products.  The  necessity 
for  the  emphasis  lies  in  the  fact  that  these 
factors  are  so  often  disregarded.  They  are 
of  most  vital  importance  to  the  man  who 
attempts  to  raise  tree  fruits.  A  mistake  in 
the  planting  of  celery,  cabbage,  or  onions 
168 


PLACE  OF  INTENSIVE  FARMING 

may  be  rectified  the  following  season,  but  if 
a  mistake  is  made  in  planting  tree  fruits,  it 
may,  as  in  the  case  of  apples,  require  ten  or 
even  20  years  to  discover  the  error. 

The  growth  in  commercial  orcharding  is 
due  in  part  to  the  need  of  special  knowledge 
and  facilities  for  combating  fungous  dis- 
eases and  insect  enemies  and  to  the  better 
markets  which  a  large  production  of  uni- 
form quality  makes  possible.  While  these 
are  extremely  important  considerations, 
there  is  a  more  fundamental  reason,  which 
may  in  the  long  run  exercise  an  even  more 
potent  influence.  The  location  of  the 
ordinary  family  orchard,  so  called,  has  been 
determined  in  almost  every  instance  by  the 
location  of  the  farm  buildings.  There  is  no 
necessary  relation  between  a  good  site  for  a 
farm  dwelling  and  a  suitable  location  for 
an  orchard.  It  happens,  therefore,  that 
family  orchards,  taken  as  a  whole,  are  not 
grown  under  as  favorable  conditions  as 
are  commercial  orchards.  This  is  a  suffi- 
cient reason  in  itself,  even  if  the  other  rea- 
sons above  mentioned  did  not  exist,  why  the 
169 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

commercial  orchard  must,  in  time,  supplant 
these  accidental  plantings. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  HORTICULTURE 

The  advantages  of  this  intensive  form  of 
agriculture  as  compared  with  the  more 
extensive  forms  discussed  in  Chapter  XII 
may  be  stated  as  follows : 

(1)  A  large  gross  income  per  acre  may 
be   obtained.      An    investigation    of    truck 
farming  made  some  years  ago  indicated  a 
gross  return  per  acre  about  40  times  as  great 
as  that  obtained  on  an  average  from  all 
forms  of  agriculture. 

(2)  There  is  a  large  opportunity  for  the 
use    of    skill    in    raising    and    preparing 
products  for  market  and  an  equal  oppor- 
tunity for  the  exercise  of  judgment  in  choos- 
ing the  best  markets. 

DISADVANTAGES  OF  HORTICULTURE 

( i )    It  requires  considerable  capital,  par- 
ticularly for  machinery  and  labor.     In  the 
investigation  in  truck  farming  above  men- 
tioned the  capital  per  acre  invested  in  land, 
170 


PLACE  OF  INTENSIVE  FARMING 

buildings,  implements  and  teams  was  eight 
times  that  in  the  more  general  forms  of  agri- 
culture. 

(2)  The  products  are  for  the  most  part 
readily  perishable,  requiring  special  facili- 
ties if  held  for  any  length  of  time. 

(3)  Growing    out    of    above-mentioned 
fact,  the  market  is  easily  overstocked  at  any 
given  point,  and  hence  prices  often  fluctuate 
widely. 

(4)  The  yield  is  also  quite  variable,  this 
class  of  products  being  especially  influenced 
by  seasonal  conditions  and  particularly  sub- 
ject to  insect  attacks  and  fungous  diseases. 
Since  large  capital  is  invested  in  labor,  the 
horticulturist  may  be  involved  in  financial 
ruin  through  causes  which  he  is  unable  to 
control. 

(5)  The  labor  question,  in  certain  forms 
of  horticulture  more  than  in  others,  involves 
difficulties,  among  which  is  need  of  large 
quantities  of  cheap  labor  for  short  periods 
of  time. 


171 


CHAPTER  XV 

REASONS  FOR  ANIMAL 
HUSBANDRY 

ANIMAL  products  in  the  United  States 
nearly  equal  in  value  those  of  all  other 
farm  products.  Those  soil  supplies  which 
constitute  the  food  of  domestic  animals  are 
not  implied.  Practically  every  farm  in  the 
United  States  keeps  domestic  animals, 
either  for  their  labor  or  their  products,  and 
nearly  every  household  in  both  city  and 
country  keeps  one  or  more  animals  for  com- 
panionship. The  domestication  of  animals 
has  been  a  prime  factor  in  the  civilization 
of  the  human  race  by  furnishing  man  with 
motive  force  by  which  he  has  been  able  to 
increase  his  productive  power;  by  giving 
him  a  larger,  better  and  more  regular  food 
supply;  and  by  furnishing  the  materials  for 
clothing,  making  it  possible  for  him  to  in- 
habit temperate  and  even  arctic  climates. 
Animals  have  not  been  less  important  in 
advancing  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the 
172 


human  race,  by  inculcating  habits  of  regu- 
larity and  kindliness,  which  the  care  of 
domestic  animals  imposes. 

INCREASE  IN  ANIMAL  PRODUCTION 

During  the  last  half  century  animals  have 
not  increased  in  numbers  as  rapidly  as  have 
the  inhabitants,  but  the  value  of  animals  has 
increased  much  more  rapidly.  While  a  part 
of  this  increase  in  value  is  due  perhaps  to  a 
greater  cost  of  production,  a  couple  of  illus- 
trations will  suffice  to  show  that  part  of  this 
increase  in  value  has  been  due  to  increase  in 
the  individual  merit  of  the  animals.  In 
1850  sheep  in  this  country  produced  2.4 
pounds  of  wool  per  fleece;  in  1910  they  pro- 
duced 6.9  pounds  per  fleece.  Thus,  while  in 
50  years  sheep  have  not  quite  doubled  in 
numbers,  the  production  of  wool  has  in- 
creased more  than  five  times.  This  is  a 
striking  example  of  the  value  of  improve- 
ment in  breeding,  because  the  improve- 
ment in  wool  production  is  due  to  the 
influence  of  heredity  in  far  greater  degree 
than  to  the  effect  of  improved  feeding. 

173 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

Wool,  like  the  hair  on  one's  head,  is  not 
greatly  influenced  by  the  food  supply, 
assuming  it  to  be  reasonably  ample.  Beef 
cattle  offer  another  illustration  of  the  way 
in  which  animal  products  have  been 
increased  without  increasing  the  number  of 
animals.  Formerly  beef  cattle  were  ma- 
tured in  their  fourth  and  fifth  years,  or  even 
their  sixth  year.  They  are  now  placed  upon 
the  market  in  their  second  and  third  years. 
If  animals  can  be  matured  in  their  third 
instead  of  their  fifth  year,  it  is  obvious  that 
a  much  smaller  number  of  animals  must  be 
kept  upon  the  farm  in  order  to  provide  an 
equal  annual  supply  for  slaughter. 

The  increase  in  the  size  of  our  horses  and 
the  increased  production  of  butter  fat  per 
cow  which  have  occurred  in  the  past  half 
century  are  hardly  less  important  factors  in 
increasing  the  value  of  domestic  animals 
and  their  products. 

THE  FUTURE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  recent 
progress  in  domestic  animals  is  the  large 

174 


REASONS  FOR  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

increase  in  the  number  of  horses  and  the 
still  greater  increase  in  their  value.  There 
are  those  who  have  believed  that  the  inven- 
tion of  many  beneficent  forms  of  mechanical 
power  would  in  time,  if  not  in  the  very  near 
future,  supplant  the  use  of  animals  as  a 
motive  power.  The  fact  seems  to  be,  how- 
ever, that  they  merely  augment  man's 
resources  and  increase  his  opportuni- 
ties without  lessening  his  need  for  animal 
power. 

It  appears  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
there  will  be  witnessed  in  the  United  States 
a  gradual  shifting  of  live  stock  centers. 
During  the  past  half  century,  the  great  cen- 
tral West  has  been  noted  for  the  production 
of  live  stock,  particularly  for  beef,  mutton 
and  wool,  as  an  incident  of  its  pioneer  de- 
velopment. Already  the  production  of 
large  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep  has 
disappeared  for  the  central  West,  and  is 
now  confined  largely  to  Texas  and  the 
mountain  states.  The  northeastern  states  are 
unrivaled  in  the  production  of  grass,  and 
have  considerable  areas  less  fitted  for  tillage 

175 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

than  the  prairie  states.  In  time,  therefore, 
the  tendency  will  be  for  the  regions  best 
fitted  to  rear  animals  to  increase  their  num- 
bers of  breeding  animals.  On  the  other 
hand,  those  states  which  produce  grain  in 
relatively  large  abundance  may  give  more 
attention  to  fattening  animals  and  to  the 
production  of  dairy  products  which  can  be 
shipped  long  distances.  As  time  advances, 
the  history  of  other  countries  will  doubtless 
be  repeated.  A  greater  distinction  between 
the  breeding  and  rearing  of  animals,  and 
their  fattening  and  preparation  for  market 
will  occur. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  KEEPING  LIVE  STOCK 

Since  animals  occupy  a  place  in  practi- 
cally all  farm  organizations,  it  is  desirable 
to  state  briefly  the  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages which  may  accrue  to  any  indi- 
vidual enterprise.  The  most  striking 
advantages  affecting  the  farmer  are: 

( i )  Animals  make  it  possible  to  use  land 
that  would  otherwise  be  wholly  or  partly 
unproductive.  Hillsides  and  mountain 
176 


REASONS  FOR  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

slopes,  soil  too  stony  to  cultivate,  fields 
traversed  by  winding  streams,  and  land  par- 
tially covered  with  trees,  are  familiar  exam- 
ples. As  previously  mentioned,  only  about 
one-half  the  farm  area  in  this  country  is 
improved  land,  and  only  two-thirds,  even  of 
the  improved  land,  is  in  cultivated  crops. 
The  other  third  of  the  improved  land  and 
a  considerable  portion  of  that  half  of  the 
farm  area  known  as  unimproved  land  are 
utilized  as  pasture  for  domestic  animals. 

(2)  They  make  use  of  farm  crops  which 
would  be  entirely  or  partially  wasted. 
Straw,  the  stalks  of  maize,  clover  and 
alfalfa  hay  and  other  leguminous  forage 
crops  would  not  have  sufficient  value  to  pay 
for  raising  if  animals  were  not  kept  to  con- 
vert them  into  useful  products.  In  fact,  the 
usefulness  of  a  given  animal  may  be  judged 
by  the  economy  with  which  he  converts 
these  otherwise  useless  products  into  food  or 
other  materials  for  the  use  of  man.  The 
most  profound  studies  are  being  made  to 
determine  the  conditions  under  which  this 
takes  place. 

177 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

(3)  In  thus  acting  as  machines  in  manu- 
facturing raw  materials  into  finished  prod- 
ucts   animals    convert    these    coarse    and 
bulky  materials  into  those  which  are  much 
more  concentrated,  thus  making  their  trans- 
portation economically  possible.    A  pound 
of  beef  has  required  food  containing  ten 
pounds  of  dry  substance,  and  a  pound  of  but- 
ter has  required  thirty  pounds  of  dry  mat- 
ter to  produce  it. 

These  refined  products  may  be  shipped 
around  the  world,  while  the  raw  materials 
may  not  be  profitably  transported  beyond 
the  county  in  which  they  are  raised.  More- 
over, the  farmer  has  the  profit  which  comes 
from  manufacturing  the  raw  materials  into 
refined  products. 

(4)  In    the    production    of    these    finer 
products  much  of  the  essential  materials  of 
plant  growth  are  left  upon  the  farm.    The 
experiments  of   Lawes   and   Gilbert  show 
conclusively  that  in  fattening  animals  more 
than  nine  pounds  out  of  ten  of  the  essential 
fertilizing  ingredients  of  the  food  reappear 
in  the  solid  and  liquid  excrements.    Proth- 

,78 


REASONS  FOR  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

ero  says:  "Farming  in  a  circle,  unlike  logic, 
is  a  productive  process." 

The  fiscal  policy  of  one  of  the  great 
nations  of  the  globe  is  based  upon  this  idea. 
Everything  possible  is  done  by  Germany  to 
encourage  the  keeping  of  live  stock,  because 
the  more  live  stock  that  is  kept,  the  more 
productive  will  be  the  soil.  The  larger  the 
crops  raised  the  more  people  will  be 
required  to  harvest  them  and  the  larger  will 
be  the  population  to  recruit  the  army  and 
navy.  The  Kaiser  and  the  German  scien- 
tist recognize  that  the  fighting  force  of  the 
Empire  is  related  to  the  number  of  domestic 
animals  reared.  The  meat  supplies  of  the 
people  are,  therefore,  taxed  to  bring  about 
this  end. 

(5)  The  rearing  of  live  stock  makes  it 
possible  to  arrange  a  better  rotation  of  crops. 
A  five-year  and,  even  better,  a  six-year  rota- 
tion, is  more  effective  than  a  four-year  in 
maintaining  the  crop-producing  power  of 
the  soil  and  enables  the  farmer  to  reduce  his 
cost  of  production.  It  is  possible  to  keep  a 
larger  proportion  of  the  farm  in  grass  and 
179 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

other  forage  crops,  thus  reducing  the 
amount  of  land  plowed  annually  and  at  the 
same  time  decreasing  the  exhaustion  of  the 
land,  provided  the  forage  crops  are  fed  to 
live  stock  upon  the  farm. 

There  is  an  old  Flemish  proverb  which 
reads : 

"No  grass,  no  cattle; 
No  cattle,  no  manure; 
No  manure,  no  crops." 

The  point  of  this  proverb  is  that  good 
grass  is  the  basis  of  good  agriculture.  In- 
vestigations have  shown  that  one  may  go 
farther  and  say  that  one  of  the  most  ready 
means  of  increasing  the  crop-producing 
power  of  the  soil  is  by  adding  fertilizers  to 
grass  land.  The  large  number  of  plants  per 
acre  enables  the  plants  to  utilize  the  ferti- 
lizer to  the  highest  degree,  and  plowing 
under  the  resulting  dense  sod  is  one  of  the 
most  effective  methods  of  enriching  the  soil. 

(6)   Animals  require  constant  care,  thus 

making  possible  a  more  constant  use  of  labor 

and  other  capital.    The  wheat  farmer  of 

North  Dakota  sows  his  wheat  in  April  and 

1 80 


REASONS  FOR  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

May  and  harvests  it  in  July  and  August. 
He  usually  threshes  it  immediately,  and  is 
practically  without  employment  for  him- 
self, his  teams  or  his  men  from  September 
until  April.  On  live  stock  farms  the  labor 
employed  in  the  summer  in  the  field  is 
needed  in  the  winter  in  paddocks  and 
stables. 

(7)  The  management  of  live  stock,  in- 
cluding the  rearing  of  poultry  and  the 
manipulation  of  dairy  products,  may  be 
made  to  require  a  higher  skill  than  the  pro- 
duction of  farm  crops  as  ordinarily  prac- 
ticed. The  communities  which  have  given 
the  most  attention  to  dairying  and  to  the 
rearing  and  fattening  of  animals  have  gen- 
erally been  the  most  prosperous. 

DISADVANTAGES  OF  KEEPING  LIVE  STOCK 

( i )  Keeping  live  stock  increases  the  cap- 
ital required  to  operate  a  given  area  of  land, 
especially  where  animals  are  kept  in  con- 
nection with  the  production  of  hay  and 
grain.  Not  only  must  there  be  capital  with 
which  to  purchase  animals,  but  usually 
181 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

more  is  invested  in  buildings.  In  a  self- 
contained  farm — that  is,  one  which  raises 
sufficient  food  for  the  requirements  of  the 
live  stock — ten  dollars  an  acre  may  be  con- 
sidered a  moderate  investment  for  animals. 
If,  however,  the  plan  is  to  raise  o'nly  the 
coarse  feed,  while  the  necessary  grain  as 
well  as  other  concentrates  is  largely  pur- 
chased, a  farm  may  easily  carry  from  $25 
to  $35  worth  of  live  stock  per  acre.  Lack 
of  capital  is  one  of  the  most  potent  influ- 
ences in  preventing  a  larger  production  of 
animals  and  animal  products.  Cattle  paper, 
or  notes  given  to  secure  money  for  the  pur- 
chase of  fattening  animals,  is  a  common 
bank  asset  in  the  feeding  districts  of  the  cen- 
tral West. 

(2)  The  very  perishable  nature  of  ani- 
mals entails  a  great  risk  in  the  investment 
of  capital  in  live  stock.  Not  only  the 
products  of  a  single  year,  but  the  growth  of 
a  number  of  years,  may  be  suddenly  swept 
away  by  disease.  This  may  include  the 
crops  of  several  years,  thus  destroying  cap- 
ital invested  in  the  production  of  the  crops 
182 


REASONS  FOR  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

as  well  as  the  capital  originally  invested  in 
the  animals.  Many  a  farmer  has  seen  the 
gradual  accumulations  of  years  rapidly  melt 
away  in  the  presence  of  some  contagious 
disease.  Tuberculosis  in  cattle,  cholera  in 
hogs  and  liver  rot  in  sheep  are  striking  ex- 
amples of  diseases  that  have  caused  the 
farmers  of  this  country  untold  losses. 

(3)  When  an  animal  has  been  properly 
fattened  he  must  be  sold.     If  held  for  any 
great  length  of  time,  not  only  is  there  a  con- 
stant outlay  for  food  to  maintain  the  animal, 
but  the  condition  of  the  animal  may  actually 
deteriorate.    Hence  it  is  not  possible  to  hold 
animals   for   a   better  market   for   a   long 
period  of  time,  as  is  possible  in  the  case  of 
the  cereal  grains. 

(4)  Serious  losses  may  occur  where  profit 
was  expected  through  a  rise  in  the  price  of 
foodstuffs.     Scarcity  in  food  supplies,  due 
to  an  unfavorable  season,  often  compels  the 
stockman  to  sacrifice  animals  that  he  has 
been  raising  for  two  or  three  years.     It  is 
sometimes   asserted   that,    although   society 
suffers  from  short  crops,  the  farmer  is  bene- 

•83 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

fited,  because  the  increase  in  price  is  greater 
than  the  decrease  in  yield.  One  year,  for 
example,  the  decrease  in  the  production  of 
maize  was  30%,  while  the  increase  in  price 
was  50%.  If,  therefore,  the  crop  had  been 
sold  it  would  have  brought  more  than  the 
crop  of  the  previous  year.  The  farmers, 
however,  require  about  80%  of  the  maize 
crop  in  the  production  of  their  live  stock, 
so  that  when  there  was  a  decrease  of  30%  in 
the  yield  of  maize,  many  had  none  to  sell, 
while  others  had  to  purchase  maize  at 
increased  prices  or  use  other  crops,  such  as 
oats,  which  they  might  otherwise  have  sold. 
Still  others  would  be  compelled  to  sell,  at 
reduced  prices,  their  partially  fattened 
animals.  There  is  a  constant  fluctuation  in 
the  price  of  animals  and  animal  products, 
due  to  variation  in  yield  and  hence  in  price 
of  food  supplies.  It  requires  continual 
vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  stockman  to 
secure  food  supplies  at  such  cost  as  will 
enable  him  to  secure  a  profitable  return 
from  his  animals. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
RETURNS  FROM  ANIMALS 

IN  any  well-considered  plan  of  farm  op- 
erations it  is  essential  to  have  some  basis 
for  estimating  the  amount  of  food  required 
to  carry  live  stock  through  the  year  in  order 
to  know,  on  the  one  hand,  what  portion  of 
the  crops  raised  are  available  for  sale  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  what  food  supplies  must 
be  purchased.  A  requisite  of  any  successful 
farm  enterprise  is  a  proper  consideration  of 
these  market  conditions.  While  domestic 
animals  consume  a  variety  of  foods,  and 
each  class  of  animals  has  special  food 
requirements,  the  basis  of  calculation  of  the 
needed  supplies  is  fortunately  not  compli- 
cated. Twenty-five  pounds  of  dry  matter 
are  required  per  day  for  each  thousand 
pounds  of  live  weight  of  horses,  cattle  and 
sheep,  and  for  swine  about  40  pounds  for 
each  thousand  pounds  of  live  weight.  It 
may  be  more  convenient  to  calculate  the 
food  requirement  of  swine  on  the  basis  of 
1 85 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

increase  in  live  weight,  allowing  five  pounds 
of  dry  matter  for  each  pound  of  increase. 
Some  further  details  as  to  food  requirements 
will  be  found  in  the  paragraphs  which 
follow. 

COST  OF  PRODUCING  HOGS 

Pigs  possess  two  characteristics  which 
make  them  unique  among  domestic  animals. 
They  consume  concentrated  and  easily 
digested  foods  only,  and  they  produce  noth- 
ing but  meat,  fat  and  bristles.  Cattle  fur- 
nish milk  and  hides;  sheep,  wool,  hides  and 
sometimes  milk;  fowls  furnish  eggs  and 
feathers.  On  account  of  their  limited  range 
of  usefulness  and  because  of  the  high  value 
of  much  of  the  food  consumed,  it  would  not 
be  possible  to  rear  swine  economically  were 
it  not  for  their  prolificacy  and  the  fact  that 
they  are  employed  largely  as  scavengers. 
Many  cattle  are  fattened  without  direct 
profit.  The  indirect  profit  comes  from  the 
sale  of  the  pigs  which  have  followed  the  cat- 
tle. It  is  customary  to  mature  one  hog  with 
little  or  no  additional  food  while  fattening 
1 86 


RETURNS  FROM  ANIMALS 

two  steers.  In  many  well-known  ways,  pigs 
consume  products  which  would  otherwise 
be  wasted.  This  is  especially  true  in  the 
more  densely  settled  sections  of  the  world. 

On  account  of  their  prolificacy,  the 
returns  obtained  for  the  amount  of  capital 
invested  is  greater  than  in  the  case 
of  sheep,  cattle  or  horses.  Ten  sows, 
worth  $100  to  $150,  are  sufficient  to 
produce  100  pigs;  75  to  80  ewes,  worth 
from  $300  to  $500,  are  required  to  produce 
an  equal  number  of  lambs;  1 10  cows,  worth 
$4,500  to  $6,000,  to  produce  100  calves ;  and 
200  mares,  worth  from  $20,000  to  $30,000, 
to  guarantee  100  foals.  To  put  the  matter 
in  another  way,  the  capital  invested  in 
swine  may  be  reproduced  in  the  offspring 
ten  times  in  one  year;  the  capital  invested 
in  horses  not  more  than  once  in  five  years. 

In  general,  500  pounds  of  maize  will  pro- 
duce 100  pounds  of  pork,  which  is  equiva- 
lent to  eleven  pounds  of  pork  from  a  bushel. 
Since  hogs  are  so  largely  produced  from 
maize,  the  price  of  maize  and  the  price  of 
pork  are  very  closely  related.  For  example, 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

if  maize  is  worth  fifty  cents  a  bushel,  the 
grain  required  to  produce  a  pound  of 
increase  in  live  weight  will  cost  about  5 
cents ;  if  40  cents  a  bushel,  4  cents ;  if  30  cents 
a  bushel,  3  cents ;  and  so  on. 

COST  OF  PRODUCING  SHEEP 

In  the  classic  investigations  by  Lawes  and 
Gilbert,  food  containing  100  pounds  of  dry 
matter  produced  a  live-weight  increase  of 
nine  pounds  in  steers  and  1 1  pounds  in 
sheep.  At  the  Wisconsin  station,  sheep 
required  less  food  than  steers  per  pound  of 
gain.  During  rapid  fattening  of  sheep  500 
pounds  of  clover  hay  and  400  pounds  of 
maize  may  produce  100  pounds  of  increase 
in  live  weight.  While  swine  require  a  less 
weight  of  food  for  a  pound  of  increase  than 
sheep,  on  account  of  the  more  digestible 
character  of  the  food  eaten,  yet  the  Wiscon- 
sin station  found  that  the  expense  of  produc- 
ing a  pound  of  increase  was  less  in  sheep  on 
account  of  the  less  expensive  character  of 
the  food. 

1 88 


RETURNS  FROM  ANIMALS 

MEAT  AND  MILK  PRODUCTION  COMPARED 

A  summary  of  the  investigations  of 
American  experiment  stations  shows  that 
100  pounds  of  dry  matter  produced  ten 
pounds  of  increase  in  live  weight  of  steers. 
The  same  quantity  of  food  when  fed  to 
milch  cows  produced  74  pounds  of  milk, 
plus  one  pound  of  increase  in  live  weight. 
This  74  pounds  of  milk  contained  3% 
pounds  of  fat.  In  general,  therefore,  the 
food  required  to  produce  a  pound  of  butter 
fat  is  about  three  times  that  required  to 
produce  a  pound  of  increase  in  steers. 

COST  OF  STEER  FEEDING 
The  fattening  of  beef  animals  is  largely 
conducted  by  farmers  who  make  a  specialty 
of  it.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  so- 
called  corn  belt.  Into  this  region  are  gath- 
ered the  two  and  three-year-old  and,  more 
rarely,  yearling  steers,  many  of  which  have 
been  reared  in  Texas  or  in  the  mountain 
states  where  the  supply  of  maize  is  not  suffi- 
ciently ample  to  fatten  them.  These  are 
placed  in  paddocks  with  open  sheds,  where 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

they  are  fed  from  90  to  150  days,  after  which 
they  are  sent  to  market  for  slaughter.  The 
food  consists  usually  of  maize  fodder,  maize 
stover,  hay,  maize  (usually  in  the  ear),  a 
little  bran,  linseed  or  cottonseed  oil  meal. 
The  ration  per  day  during  rapid  fattening  is 
about  20  pounds  of  dry  matter  per  1,000 
pounds  of  live  weight,  containing  16  pounds 
of  digestible  substance,  of  which  1.25  to  1.75 
is  digestible  protein.  One  hundred  pounds 
of  increase  may  be  obtained  under  average 
conditions  from  150  pounds  stover,  325 
pounds  of  hay,  775  pounds  of  maize  and  75 
pounds  of  cottonseed  meal. 

Great  variations  will  occur,  however, 
depending  upon  the  condition  of  the  ani- 
mals at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  period 
and  the  degree  of  fatness  or  finish  to  which 
the  animals  are  brought  before  placing  upon 
the  market.  In  any  case,  the  food  consumed 
will  cost  more  than  the  value  of  the  increase. 
The  only  way  that  steers  can  be  profitably 
fattened  is  by  increasing  the  value  per 
pound  of  the  animal.  Thus  an  8oo-pound 
steer  may  be  purchased  at  five  cents  per 
190 


RETURNS  FROM  ANIMALS 

pound,  or  $40.  After  feeding,  say  150  days, 
he  may  weigh  1,100  pounds,  when  to  bring 
a  profitable  return  he  should  sell  for  6  cents 
a  pound,  or  $65.  This  is  a  gain  of  $25,  eight 
of  which  came  from  the  increase  in  value  of 
the  original  800  pounds.  Usually  steers 
cannot  be  fattened  profitably  unless  there  is 
an  increase  of  at  least  three-quarters  of  a 
cent  per  pound  in  the  value  of  the  animals 
and  then,  as  previously  explained,  only  in 
connection  with  the  hogs  which  follow 
them. 

COST  OF  PRODUCING  MILK  AND  BUTTER  FAT 

Well-selected  and  properly  fed  cows  may 
produce  240  pounds  of  butter  fat  annually. 
The  amount  of  fat  obtained  will  depend 
upon  the  richness  of  the  milk.  Thus,  8,000 
pounds  of  3%  milk,  6,000  pounds  of  4% 
milk,  or  a  trifle  less  than  5,000  pounds  of 
$%  milk,  will  give  this  quantity  of  butter 
fat.  These  are  customary  returns  from  dif- 
ferent types  of  cows. 

If  each  cow  in  the  herd  is  dry  for  six 
weeks  each  year  the  daily  average  of  the 
191 


cows  actually  milked  will  be  three-quarters 
of  a  pound  of  butter  fat.  There  are  herds 
which  make  an  average  of  nine-tenths  of  a 
pound  of  butter  fat  per  day,  but  to  secure 
this  result  requires  superior  cattle,  careful 
feeding  and  more  than  ordinary  care. 

The  standard  ration  for  milch  cows 
weighing  from  1,000  to  1,200  pounds  is  25 
pounds  of  dry  matter,  two-thirds  of  which 
is  digestible.  The  ration  should  contain  not 
less  than  two  pounds  of  digestible  protein.  In 
ordinary  practice,  about  ten  pounds  of  the 
dry  matter  of  the  ration  is  obtained  from 
maize  silage,  nine  pounds  from  hay  and 
about  six  pounds  from  grain  or  other  con- 
centrates. In  general,  this  is  obtained  by 
feeding  35  pounds  of  maize  silage,  ten 
pounds  of  hay  and  seven  to  eight  pounds  of 
concentrates.  The  silage  may  be  estimated 
at  one-tenth  to  one-eighth  of  a  cent  a  pound, 
hay  at  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  cent  and 
concentrates  at  from  three-quarters  to  one 
and  one-quarter  cents  per  pound,  varying, 
of  course,  with  the  different  sections  of  the 
country.  The  amount  of  food  needed  will 
192 


RETURNS  FROM  ANIMALS 

vary  somewhat  with  the  size  of  the  animals, 
but  will  depend  much  more  largely  upon 
the  amount  of  milk  and  butter  fat  given. 
While  maintaining  substantially  the  general 
average  just  given  for  the  whole  herd,  it  is 
the  practice  of  careful  feeders  to  vary  the 
amount  of  concentrates  fed  to  each  individ- 
ual in  accordance  with  the  amount  of  butter 
fat  or  milk  given. 

COST  OF  MAINTAINING  WORK  HORSES 

At  the  Minnesota  station,  the  total  cost  of 
feeding  and  maintaining  a  farm  work  horse 
for  one  year  was  estimated  to  be  from  $75 
to  $90,  of  which  about  $20  was  charged  for 
interest  and  depreciation.  On  the  basis  of 
3.3  hours  as  the  length  of  the  working  day, 
the  cost  per  horse  per  hour  was  estimated  to 
be  7^  cents.  At  the  Ohio  state  university,  it 
was  found  that  four  horses  weighing  about 
1,400  pounds  were  chosen  to  perform  2,185 
hours  of  labor  during  one  year,  while  under 
like  conditions  four  horses,  weighing  about 
200  pounds  less,  worked  on  an  average  but 
1,641  hours  each.  For  each  secular  day, 

193 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

therefore,  the  former  worked  about 
hours,  while  the  latter  were  employed  but 
five  and  one-half  hours.  The  cost  of  food 
was  estimated  at  $54;  cost  of  shoeing, 
repairs  of  harness  and  stable  supplies  at 
$6.50;  and  the  cost  of  feeding,  grooming 
and  cleaning  of  stables  at  $23.50,  or  a  total 
cost  of  $84  per  year.  Nothing  was  charged 
for  interest  or  depreciation,  but  the  expense 
of  feeding  and  caring  for  three  colts  was 
included  in  the  estimates  given.  The  an- 
nual expense  of  maintaining  a  horse  was 
practically  the  same  in  both  states,  but  the 
cost  per  hour  of  labor  performed  was  less 
because  of  the  possibility  of  employing  the 
horses  at  productive  labor  a  larger  portion 
of  the  time.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be 
placed  upon  the  need  of  planning  a  farm 
organization  which  will  give  continuous 
employment  to  horses  as  well  as  to  men  in 
order  to  realize  the  most  profitable  returns. 
An  industrial  system  that  makes  it  necessary 
to  maintain  work  animals  three  days  in 
order  to  secure  one  day's  work  falls  far 
short  of  an  ideal. 

194 


CHAPTER  XVII 
FARM  LABOR 

THE  problem  of  farm  labor  demands 
thoughtful  and  frank  consideration. 
Since  work  is  an  essential  element  in  the  pro- 
duction of  all  wealth,  it  follows  that  every 
industry  has  its  labor  problem.  The  adjust- 
ment of  labor  to  the  production  of  the 
various  forms  of  wealth  must  ever  constitute 
one  of  the  most  important  problems  in  any 
organized  society.  It  is  often  remarked 
that  the  labor  problem  is  the  chief  difficulty 
in  farming.  In  a  certain  sense  this  is  true, 
since  work  is  a  primary  element  in  the  pro- 
duction of  agricultural  as  well  as  all  other 
wealth.  It  is  not  true,  however,  that  the 
problem  of  labor  is  more  difficult  or  more 
intricate  than  that  of  other  industries.  In 
fact,  that  problem  is  less  delicate  than  in 
some  other  occupations,  because  farming  is 
less  industrialized. 

It  is  not  possible  to  settle  once  for  all  the 
problem  of  labor  for  any  occupation,  since 

195 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

changing  conditions  will  give  rise  to  new 
questions  or  new  phases  of  the  old  problem. 
Moreover,  the  problem  of  labor  on  the  farm 
will  grow  more  difficult  as  farming  becomes 
more  specialized  and  as  the  methods  of  pro- 
duction become  more  complex. 

However,  the  labor  problem  on  the  farm 
is  different  from  that  in  the  manufacturing 
industries  or  in  trade  and  transportation. 
This  chapter  will  not  concern  itself  with 
an  attempt  to  settle  the  farm  labor  problem, 
but  will  undertake  to  state  the  character  of 
some  of  the  differences  between  it  and  other 
forms  of  labor  and  to  discuss  some  of  the 
changes  in  recent  years. 

A  large  proportion  of  farm  work  is  done 
by  the  farm  owner,  or  renter,  and  his  family. 
There  is  not  much  opportunity  to  profit  by 
the  labor  of  other  persons.  In  1900  there 
were  in  the  United  States  1,812  industrial 
establishments  each  of  which  employed 
between  500  and  1,000  persons,  while  there 
were  675  establishments  each  of  which  had 
more  than  one  thousand  employees.  In  the 
same  year  there  were  5,739,657  farms,  which 
196 


FARM   LABOR 

employed  in  the  aggregate  4.4  millions  of 
people,  not  including  the  owners  of  the 
farms.  Moreover,  over  one-half  of  the  4.4 
million  persons  thus  employed  were  mem- 
bers of  the  families  of  the  farmer.  In  other 
words,  aside  from  members  of  the  family, 
there  was  less  than  one  employee  to  every 
two  farmers.  Since  a  considerable  number 
of  farmers  employ  more  than  one  person, 
it  follows  that  the  majority  of  farmers  em- 
ploy no  help  other  than  members  of  the 
family. 

In  another  particular  farm  labor  differs 
from  that  of  other  forms  of  labor  even  more 
widely.  There  are  sociologic  as  well  as 
economic  questions  involved.  Baldly  stated, 
custom  permits,  and  necessity  often  requires, 
the  laborer  to  eat  at  the  same  table  with  the 
farm  owner  and  in  other  particulars  he 
mingles  intimately  with  the  farmer's  family. 
In  all  its  bearings,  this  is  a  very  important 
fact.  It  constitutes  one  of  the  greatest  diffi- 
culties in  the  problem  of  securing  suitable 
farm  help.  Industrial  corporations  employ 
as  common  laborers  largely  Italians,  Hun- 
197 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

garians,  Poles  and  negroes.  The  English, 
the  Irish,  the  German,  the  Swede  and  the 
Norwegian  have  been  readily  received  and 
assimilated  in  the  American  farming  com- 
munities. The  peoples  of  Eastern  and 
Southern  Europe  are  often  criticized  be- 
cause they  do  not  become  farm  laborers. 
That  they  do  not  is  in  large  part  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  farm  hand  is  usually  a  member 
of  the  farmer's  family.  Thus  the  supply  of 
common  labor  which  is  today  used  by  the 
rest  of  the  industrial  world  is  not  open  to  the 
farmer. 

Farming  differs  from  some  other  occu- 
pations in  that  it  does  not  ordinarily  offer 
the  laborer  much  opportunity  for  advance- 
ment. The  fireman  on  a  railway  train  be- 
comes the  engineer;  the  brakeman  becomes 
a  conductor.  There  are  opportunities  in 
many  establishments  for  the  advancement  of 
the  industrious  and  clever.  A  man  may 
enter  their  service  with  the  hope  of  being 
able  to  marry  and  support  a  family.  On 
the  other  hand,  all  our  land  laws  are  based 
upon  the  idea  that  each  farm  should  be  of 
198 


FARM  LABOR 

sufficient  size  to  support  only  one  family. 
Where  it  does  support  two  families,  the 
relation  is  usually  that  of  landlord  and  ten- 
ant. The  farm  laborer,  therefore,  must 
look  upon  his  employment  as  more  or  less 
temporary.  The  young  man  who  intends 
to  become  a  farmer  will  find  employment 
upon  the  farm  a  desirable  if  not  essential 
preparation  for  his  future  occupation. 

The  introduction  of  farm  machinery  has 
had  the  effect  of  increasing  the  price  of 
farm  labor  while  at  the  same  time  decreas- 
ing the  amount  of  labor  needed.  The  rea- 
son is  that  the  introduction,  not  alone  of 
farm  machinery,  but  all  forms  of  machinery, 
has  made  man's  labor  much  more  efficient 
than  formerly.  Farm  wages  have  doubled 
since  the  introduction  of  horse-drawn 
machinery.  The  labor  income  in  the  differ- 
ent sections  of  the  United  States  is  influ- 
enced by  the  extent  and  efficiency  with 
which  machinery  is  used.  The  relation  of 
labor  income  to  the  use  of  horse  power  is 
shown  by  the  following  table  taken  from  a 
recent  census : 

199 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

INFLUENCE  OF  FARM  MACHINERY  AS  SHOWN  BY 

THE   RELATION   OF  LABOR  INCOME 

TO  HORSES  AND  MULES. 


Divisions  of  the 
United  States 
North  Atlantic    

Labor  Income 

$2QQ 

Number  of  horses 
and  mules  to 
1,000   persons 
in  agriculture 
i,6c< 

South  Atlantic 

i6t 

808 

North  Central       _  _ 

4O2 

4,0?  6 

South  Central 

211 

i.  60? 

Western    

CIO 

c  .476 

United  States  _. 

$288 

2.ICK 

In  one  of  the  states  of  the  South  Atlantic 
division  the  average  price  of  farm  labor, 
without  board,  was  $12  per  month,  while  in 
one  of  the  states  of  the  western  division  the 
price  on  the  same  date  was  $31.  Why? 
Because  in  the  latter  case  a  man's  labor  was 
more  productive.  In  the  South  Atlantic 
division,  in  producing  the  chief  crops  cotton 
and  maize,  a  man  uses  one  mule  in  prepar- 
ing and  cultivating  the  soil.  In  the  western 
division  plowing  and  harrowing  with  six- 
horse  teams  is  common  and  nine-horse  teams 
are  not  unusual.  The  cotton  picker  in  one 
day  will  be  able  to  gather  not  to  exceed  300 
pounds  of  seed  cotton,  worth  not  more  than 
200 


FARM  LABOR 

$15.  The  western  wheat  will  be  harvested 
by  a  machine  drawn  by  28  horses.  In  the 
same  time  four  men  with  this  outfit  will  cut 
and  thresh  700  bushels  of  wheat,  worth  $500. 
When  the  threshing  machine  was  first 
introduced  in  Ohio,  it  was  stubbornly 
opposed  by  all  farm  laborers.  "They 
claimed  it,"  says  Bateman,  "as  a  right  to 
thresh  with  a  flail,  and  regarded  the  intro- 
duction of  machinery  to  effect  the  same 
object  in  a  few  days  which  would  require 
their  individual  exertion  during  the  whole 
winter,  not  only  as  an  invasion  of  a  time- 
honored  custom,  but  as  absolutely  depriving 
them  of  the  means  of  obtaining  an  honest 
livelihood.  At  a  later  date,  when  a  reaper 
had  been  introduced  into  a  field  of  ripe 
wheat  as  a  matter  of  experiment  only,  every 
one  of  the  harvest  hands  deliberately 
marched  out  of  the  field  and  told  the  pro- 
prietor that  he  might  secure  his  crop  as  best 
he  could,  that  the  threshing  machine  had 
deprived  them  of  their  regular  winter  work 
twenty  years  ago  and  now  the  reaper  would 
deprive  them  of  the  pittance  they  otherwise 
20 1 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

could  earn  during  harvest."  How  short- 
sighted they  were !  No  class  gained  so  much 
from  the  introduction  of  labor-saving 
machinery  as  did  those  who  did  the  labor. 
The  reason  for  the  increase  in  well-being, 
the  reason  society  enjoys  luxuries  and  com- 
forts beyond  the  fondest  dreams  of  former 
generations,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  labor 
of  each  man  has  been  made  so  much  more 
effective  through  these  labor-saving  devices. 
The  humblest  citizen  shares  in  this  improve- 
ment. Not  all  share  alike  and  not  all  share 
equitably,  but  each  generation  sees  its  mem- 
bers sharing  more  equitably  than  those  of 
any  generation  which  preceded  it. 

The  proposition  is  an  extremely  simple 
one.  If  a  man  produces  just  enough  food 
for  himself  and  family,  he  will  have  nothing 
for  clothing,  shelter,  or  education.  If, 
however,  a  man  produces  four  times  as 
much  food  as  he  and  his  family  consume,  he 
may  exchange  one-fourth  for  shelter,  one- 
fourth  for  clothing  and  have  remaining  a 
fourth  for  education,  and  recreation  or  sav- 
ings. This  is  only  another  way  of  saying 
202 


FARM  LABOR 

that  the  greater  the  amount  of  any  useful 
commodity  produced  by  a  single  day's  labor 
the  larger  will  be  the  laborer's  income  or 
wages. 

Although  the  increase  in  intensive  agri- 
culture and  the  diversification  in  farming 
tend  to  increase  the  need  of  farm  laborers, 
the  introduction  of  farm  machinery  has 
much  more  than  offset  this  demand.  The 
tendency  of  farm  laborers  to  become  farm 
tenants;  or,  to  state  it  in  other  words,  the 
tendency  of  landowners  to  rent  their  land 
rather  than  to  continue  to  operate  it  them- 
selves, is  not  without  its  influence  upon  the 
labor  problem. 

The  invention  and  introduction  of  farm 
machinery  has  accentuated  the  difficulty  of 
keeping  the  farm  laborer  continuously  em- 
ployed. The  decrease  in  the  demand  for 
farm  labor  and  the  increasing  lack  of  uni- 
formity in  the  amount  required  have  caused 
a  gradual  depletion  of  the  smaller  villages 
and  hamlets  which  were  a  source  of  labor 
supply  during  harvest  and  other  busy  sea- 
sons. 

203 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

The  problem  of  keeping  labor  continu- 
ously employed  has  always  been  a  difficult 
one  on  the  farm,  because  of  the  change  of 
seasons  and  because  of  the  variations  in  the 
weather  from  day  to  day.  There  is  a  wide 
difference  between  those  industries  which 
are  carried  on  within  doors  and  farming, 
which  is  subject  to  the  caprices  of  the 
weather.  Natural  causes  produce  tremen- 
dous variations  in  the  return  for  labor.  For 
example,  in  1901  there  were  produced  in 
the  aggregate  3,006  million  bushels  of 
wheat,  maize  and  oats,  while  in  1902  there 
were  harvested  4,180  million  bushels.  Here 
is  an  increase  of  over  a  thousand  million 
bushels.  The  same  farmers  tilled  the  same 
soil  in  the  same  way  as  far  as  natural  causes 
would  allow,  and  yet  there  was  a  difference 
in  result  amounting  to  39  per  cent.  A  varia- 
tion of  one  hundred  million  bushels  of 
wheat  from  year  to  year,  due  to  climatic 
conditions  solely,  is  not  at  all  unusual. 

The  manufacturer  also  has  far  greater 
control  of  his  labor.  When  it  rains,  he  has 
a  roof  over  his  workmen,  and  hence  the 
204 


FARM   LABOR 

work  is  not  interrupted.  When  it  grows 
dark,  he  turns  on  the  light  and  the  work 
continues.  If  it  gets  cold,  he  lights  the  fire 
and  still  the  work  continues  comfortably. 
It  is  not  so  in  agriculture.  There  is  a  great 
variation  in  the  working  efficiency  of  men 
employed  in  farming.  In  a  certain  locality 
there  were  twenty-one  days  of  rain  in  the 
thirty-one  days  of  May.  The  next  year 
between  June  5  and  September  5  in  the  same 
locality  there  was  not  half  an  inch  of 
rainfall  at  any  one  time. 

What  is  true  of  labor  is  also  true  of 
machinery.  The  farmer  must  purchase 
machinery  which  he  can  use  only  a  few  days 
in  the  year,  while  the  manufacturer,  for  the 
most  part,  employs  his  machinery  continu- 
ously, sometimes  day  and  night.  While 
natural  causes  prevent  the  farmer  from 
using  the  same  business  methods,  or  from 
being  able  to  calculate  his  profits  with  the 
same  precision  as  is  possible  by  those  fol- 
lowing manufacturing  and  mercantile  pur- 
suits, it  is  nevertheless  important  that 
farming  should  be  planned  to  avoid,  as  far 
205 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

as  possible,  the  influence  of  natural  causes. 
Certain  kinds  of  farming  are  less  dependent 
upon  natural  causes  than  others.  Wisdom 
and  foresight  can  do  much  to  avoid,  in  all 
farming,  untoward  influences.  The  clever 
farmer  seldom  complains  about  the  weather. 
Farm  machinery  has  made  unnecessary, 
and  hence  unprofitable,  some  of  the  labor  at 
which  children  were  formerly  employed. 
In  the  not  distant  past  many,  perhaps  most 
farmers,  owed  their  prosperity  in  large 
measure  to  the  labor  of  their  children.  A 
large  family,  especially  of  boys,  was  a  valua- 
ble asset.  Even  a  generation  ago  conditions 
were  not  far  different,  and  two  generations 
ago  were  quite  the  same  as  those  described 
by  Homer: 

"Another  field  rose  high  with  waving  grain: 

With  bended  sickles  stand  the  reaper  train: 

Here,  stretch'd  in  ranks,  the  level'd  swaths  are  found ; 

Sheaves  heaped  on  sheaves  here  thicken  up  the  ground. 

With  sweeping  stroke  the  mowers  strow  the  lands ; 

The  gath'rers  follow,  and  collect  in  bands : 

And  last  the  children,  in  whose  arms  are  borne 

(Too  short  to  gripe  them)  the  brown  sheaves  of  corn. 

2O6 


FARM  LABOR 

The  rustic  monarch  of  the  field  descries, 
With  silent  glee,  the  heaps  around  him  rise. 
A  ready  banquet  on  the  turf  is  laid 
Beneath  an  ample  oak's  expanded  shade. 
The  victim  ox  the  sturdy  youth  prepare: 
The  reaper's  due  repast,  the  women's  care." 

There  is  also  another  reason  why  the  age 
of  the  employed  has  been  raised.  It  is 
due  to  the  growth  of  higher  education. 
Where  formerly  the  farmer's  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  twelve  and  twenty-one  did 
most  of  the  farm  work,  now  many  of  them 
at  the  same  age  are  attending  schools  and 
colleges.  The  sons  of  a  man,  who  a  genera- 
tion ago  found  no  opportunity  to  get  beyond 
the  district  school,  graduate  from  high 
school  and  college,  and  thus  spend  most  of 
their  time  in  study  until  they  are  past 
twenty-one  years  of  age. 

Labor  unions  have  doubtless  caused  a 
scarcity  of  farm  labor  by  increasing  the  pro- 
portion of  the  created  wealth  which  goes 
to  the  man  who  labors  without  capital. 
When  a  man  can  obtain  fifty  cents  an  hour 
for  laying  brick,  he  does  not  wish  to  work 
207 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

in  the  hay  field  at  twenty  cents  an  hour,  even 
though  the  difference  in  the  cost  of  living 
may  in  great  measure  offset  the  difference  in 
wages. 

There  is  a  growing  tendency  to  perform 
work  by  what  is  called  contract  labor.  Thus 
a  person  may  agree  to  weed  and  hoe  sugar 
beets  at  a  certain  rate  per  acre.  He,  in  turn, 
employs  a  force  of  cheap  laborers  which  he 
sends  from  farm  to  farm  to  do  this  work. 
The  harvesting  of  fruits  and  garden  crops  is 
not  infrequently  done  in  some  such  manner. 
In  one  instance  a  contractor  of  laborers  of 
foreign  birth  has  been  furnishing  them  for 
all  kinds  of  farm  work.  He  keeps  20  to  40 
of  these  laborers  on  a  small  farm,  furnish- 
ing them  a  dwelling  and  selling  them  food 
supplies.  Farmers  telephone  for  help  when 
in  need.  The  contractor  receives  $1.65  for 
a  day's  work  and  pays  the  laborer  $1.50. 

It  appears  from  the  preceding  considera- 
tions that  there  are  open  to  every  farmer  at 
least  three  methods  of  increasing  the  effi- 
ciency of  farm  labor.  He  may  make  every 
day's  labor  more  efficient  by  use  of  labor- 
208 


FARM   LABOR 

saving  machinery  and  the  employment  of 
it  in  the  most  efficient  manner;  as,  for  exam- 
ple, using  three  i,5oo-pound  horses  to  his 
farm  machinery  instead  of  a  pair  of  1,200- 
pound  horses.  He  may  modify  the  char- 
acter of  his  farming  in  order  that  profitable 
labor  will  be  more  continuous.  He  may 
modify  the  method  of  employing  labor;  as, 
for  example,  by  introducing  the  system  of 
contracting  labor  for  specific  purposes 
where  feasible. 

Increase  in  the  price  of  farm  labor  is  not 
an  evil.  It  is  an  indication  that  labor  ap- 
plied to  agriculture  is  becoming  more  pro- 
ductive and  hence  more  profitable.  Since 
more  than  one-half  the  labor  of  the  farm  is 
done  by  the  owner  and  his  family,  the 
farmer  is  benefited  through  the  rise  in  price 
of  farm  wages.  The  more  that  labor  can 
be  made  to  earn  upon  the  farm,  the  better  it 
will  be  not  only  for  the  farm  owner  but  for 
society  in  general. 


209 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
SHIPPING 

THE  means  of  facile  transportation  and 
the  machinery  of  trade  are  the  need  and 
the  development  of  a  complex  civilization. 
The  importance  of  these  useful  adjuncts  of 
everyday  life  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
about  one-fourth  of  all  the  people  engaged 
in  gainful  occupations  in  civilized  com- 
munities are  employed  in  them.  Neverthe- 
less the  expense  of  transportation  and  trade 
constitutes  a  tax  upon  the  consumer  which 
it  is  the  aim  of  modern  methods  to  reduce  to 
the  lowest  limits.  Recent  investigations 
indicate  that  for  every  thirteen  dollars  the 
consumer  expends  for  farm  products  the 
producers  receive  six  dollars.  In  some 
directions  most  remarkable  results  have 
been  accomplished.  A  recent  quotation  on 
wheat  per  bushel  was  as  follows:  Chicago, 
$0.93;  Antwerp,  $1.04;  London,  $1.06; 
Hamburg,  $1.07.  Eleven  to  14  cents  per 
bushel  represents  the  cost  of  haul  and  com- 
210 


SHIPPING 

missions  between  Chicago  and  the  Euro- 
pean cities  named.  Methods  of  handling 
have  been  so  perfected  that  from  the  time 
the  western  farmer  places  the  bundle  of 
wheat  at  the  mouth  of  the  threshing 
machine  the  grain  literally  flows  through 
the  channels  of  trade  until  it  reaches  the 
flour  sack.  On  an  average  the  English 
miller  pays  about  20  cents  a  bushel  more  for 
wheat  than  the  American  farmer  receives 
for  it. 

The  cost  of  distributing  many  other  farm 
products  is  greater,  although  the  range  of 
distribution  is  much  less.  The  cost  of  haul- 
age and  selling  potatoes  is  from  25  to  50% 
of  the  retail  price,  while  with  hay  it  is  still 
higher.  The  cost  of  distributing  all  forms 
of  truck  and  market  garden  produce  is  high 
and  often  wasteful.  Many  attempts  have 
been  made  to  eliminate  a  part  of  this  cost 
as  well  as  to  better  the  conditions  of  the 
supplies  when  they  reach  the  consumer. 
While  many  individuals  have  been  quite 
successful  in  dealing  directly  with  the  con- 
sumer, little  has  thus  far  been  accomplished 
211 


THE  YOUNG   FARMER 

that  affects  general  trade  conditions.  Great 
improvements  have  been  made  in  methods 
of  transportation  and  methods  of  preserva- 
tion. Cold  storage  and  canned  goods  have 
been  the  direction  in  which  progress  has 
been  notable. 

WASTEFUL  METHODS  OF  DISTRIBUTION 

Owing  to  customs  and  traditions  there  is 
frequently  a  great  waste  of  effort  in  some  of 
the  methods  of  trade.  The  meat  trade  of 
France  is  an  excellent  illustration.  Certain 
sections  of  France  make  a  specialty  of  rear- 
ing cattle.  At  a  suitable  age  these  animals 
are  purchased  by  other  farmers  who  fatten 
them.  Many  of  the  small  towns  maintain 
market  places  at  which  fairs  are  held  to 
facilitate  these  negotiations.  Frequently 
there  is  a  shipment  from  one  region  to  an- 
other, which  is  conducted  by  a  middleman. 
When  fattened  the  steers  are  collected  by  a 
stock  buyer,  who  may  ship  them  to  La  Vil- 
lette,  the  live  stock  market  of  Paris.  Here 
they  are  placed  on  sale  through  commission 
men.  There  are  the  usual  charges  for 
212 


yardage  and  food.  After  being  sold  the 
animals  are  driven  to  the  slaughterhouses. 
The  carcasses  are  then  taken  by  wagon  to 
the  great  market  of  Paris  located  near  the 
center  of  the  city.  Here  the  retail  vender  of 
meats  comes,  makes  his  purchase,  reloads 
the  meat,  which  may  have  been  unloaded 
less  than  an  hour  before,  carries  it  to  his 
shop,  where  the  consumer  seeks  it.  The 
number  of  people  concerned  and  the  amount 
of  hand  labor  have  been  excessive. 

Nor  is  the  American  system  without  its 
faults.  The  Iowa  or  Illinois  farmer  fattens 
cattle  that  may  have  been  reared  in  Mon- 
tana or  Texas.  After  the  stock  buyer,  the 
commission  man  and  the  stock  yard  com- 
pany have  each  taken  his  toll,  the  packer 
ships  the  carcasses  back  to  the  very  region 
where  the  animals  were  fattened,  when  the 
stockman  may  purchase  it  of  the  local 
vender  of  meats.  The  facilities  and  perfec- 
tion with  which  these  many  transactions  are 
accomplished  is  one  of  the  wonderful  sights 
of  our  country.  Nevertheless  the  producer 
of  meat  products  may  well  consider  whether 
213 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

some  more  economical  system  of  distribu- 
tion may  not  be  devised. 

SHIPMENTS  :  SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION 

All  railroad  rates  are  now  carefully 
supervised  by  the  federal  government  and 
are  open  to  the  inspection  of  the  public. 
Such  information  as  is  ordinarily  needed 
may  be  obtained  from  the  local  station 
agent,  who  is  always  glad  to  be  of  service  to 
patrons  of  his  road.  If  information  of  a 
special  character  is  required,  it  may  be 
obtained  by  addressing  the  division  freight 
agent  of  the  railroad  in  the  region  under 
consideration.  The  name  of  this  officer  is 
to  be  found  in  the  circulars  and  upon  the 
posters  of  the  railroad. 

In  addition  to  the  freight  facilities 
offered  by  any  individual  railroad,  there  are 
what  are  known  as  fast  freight  lines.  These 
agencies  enable  through  and  prompt  ship- 
ment from  inland  points  in  our  own  coun- 
try to  inland  points  in  another.  An  individ- 
ual railroad  may  operate  in  connection  with 
several  such  agencies.  A  certain  railroad, 
214 


SHIPPING 

for  example,  is  combined  with  nine  fast 
freight  lines.  Freight  agents  of  local  roads 
in  the  principal  towns  usually  represent  the 
fast  freight  lines  and  are  prepared  to  tran- 
sact business. 

In  seaport  cities  there  are  firms  styling 
themselves  foreign  freight  contractors,  out- 
ward freight  agents,  steamship  agents,  or 
ship  brokers.  These  firms  are  prepared  to 
quote  prices  on  shipments  to  any  part  of  the 
world  on  either  regular  or  tramp  ships. 
They  will  give  freely  to  intending  shippers 
full  information  concerning  methods  and 
conditions  of  shipment.  There  is  nothing 
mysterious  about  the  business  of  shipping 
farm  products.  The  necessary  details  may 
be  acquired  by  inquiry  in  the  channels  indi- 
cated and  by  a  little  study  of  the  data,  which 
will  be  cheerfully  furnished. 

RAILROAD  RATES 

A  great  many  factors  are  involved  in 
determining  the  rate  which  is  charged  for 
transporting  different  products.    In  a  cer- 
tain sense  it  is  doubtless  true  that  the  rate 
215 


THE  YOUNG   FARMER 

charged  is  based  upon  what  the  traffic  will 
bear.  The  purpose  here,  however,  is  to  state 
some  of  the  customs  which  exist  rather  than 
to  discuss  the  philosophy  or  justice  of  them. 

The  rate  may  vary  with  the  value  of  the 
product,  without  any  regard  to  the  cost  of 
the  haul.  Suppose  the  cost  of  shipping  a 
ten-gallon  can  of  fresh  milk  between  two 
points  to  be  32  cents,  the  cost  of  shipping  a 
similar  can  of  cream  may  be  50  cents.  The 
cost  of  shipping  a  carload  of  hay  is  less  than 
a  carload  of  wheat. 

In  some  instances,  zones  or  belts  have 
been  recognized,  the  rate  from  all  towns 
within  each  zone  being  the  same  for  a  given 
product.  Certain  railroads  centering  in 
New  York  recognize  four  zones  for  the 
shipment  of  milk  and  cream,  as  follows: 

Zone  A — First  40  miles. 

Zone  B — Between  40  and  100  miles. 

Zone  C — Between  100  and  190  miles. 

Zone  D — Beyond  190  miles. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  size  of  these 
zones  varies  and  may  be  the  subject  of  ad- 
justment between  railroads  and  shippers. 
216 


SHIPPING 

While  less  understood  by  the  public,  rail- 
roads recognize  zones  or,  more  properly, 
groups  of  towns  in  making  rates  to  them 
instead  of  from  them,  as  in  the  instance 
above  mentioned.  It  is  possible  to  change 
the  rate  on  a  product  to  a  given  town  by 
classifying  it  in  another  group.  The  rate 
on  bran  and  other  stock  foods  from  central 
western  points  to  certain  towns  in  New  York 
state  has  been  the  same  as  that  charged  to 
Boston,  Mass.,  while  other  towns  in  New 
York  not  far  removed  have  taken  a  lower 
rate. 

Differential  rates  are  recognized  to  be 
legitimate.  Railroads  are  allowed  to 
charge  a  less  rate  for  wheat  intended  for 
export  than  that  intended  for  local  consump- 
tion. There  has  sometimes  been  a  wide  dif- 
ference between  the  freight  rate  on  wheat 
between  Kansas  City  and  Galveston,  Texas, 
depending  upon  whether  the  wheat  was  to 
be  exported  or  intended  for  domestic  use. 

In  certain  sections  and  for  certain  prod- 
ucts the  railroad  rate  varies  with  the  season, 
because  of  difference  in  competition.  The 
217 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

railroad  rate  between  Chicago  and  New 
York  on  grain  is  higher  while  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Great  Lakes  is  suspended.  As  an 
illustration  of  the  cheapness  of  transporta- 
tion by  water,  it  is  stated  that  sometimes  it 
is  cheaper  to  ship  wheat  from  Chicago  to 
Buffalo  by  boat  than  to  store  it  in  a  grain 
elevator  for  an  equal  period  of  time. 

Products  may  sometimes  be  sent  by  bag- 
gage to  greater  advantage  than  by  express, 
special  arrangements  for  which  are  gener- 
ally required. 

FACILITIES  FOR  FREIGHT  TRANSPORTATION 

American  railway  facilities  are,  perhaps, 
unrivaled  among  the  nations  of  the  world, 
but  the  United  States  is  still  behind  other 
nations  in  the  matter  of  means  of  local 
transportation,  in  which  good  roads  is  only 
a  part  of  the  problem.  In  France,  the  so- 
called  messagers  are  a  common  feature  of 
local  traffic.  Thus  in  the  Department  of 
Touraine  there  are  246  towns  each  having 
from  one  to  four  messagers,  who  with  their 
great  two-wheel  carts,  each  with  single  draft 
218 


SHIPPING 

horse,  make  one  or  two  trips  to  Tours  each 
week.  The  messagers  carry  freight  both 
ways  precisely  in  the  same  capacity  as  rail- 
roads do.  While  the  railroads  are  fairly 
abundant  these  local  agencies  continue  to 
thrive  because  delivery  can  be  made  directly 
to  the  consignee  and  delivery  at  the  exact 
time  and  place  is  more  certain.  The 
enormous  loads  conveyed  in  these  two-wheel 
carts  by  one  horse  is  an  element  in  this  sys- 
tem to  which  the  good  roads  of  France  now 
contribute.  In  1799,  France  had  con- 
structed 25,000  miles  of  roadway.  Since 
that  time,  over  300,000  miles  of  roadway 
have  been  completed  and  about  30,000 
miles  of  railway  have  been  constructed 
—ten  miles  of  roadway  for  each  mile  of 
steam  railway.  The  good  roads  of  France 
are  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  con- 
tributing materially  to  the  improvement  in 
well-being  which  has  taken  place  during  the 
same  period. 


219 


CHAPTER  XIX 
MARKETING 

WITHOUT  stopping  to  inquire  the 
reasons,  it  may  be  recalled  that  there 
are  two  rather  distinct  forms  of  trade, 
wholesale  and  retail.  The  wholesale 
trade  is  conducted  by  three  classes 
of  persons:  dealers  or  merchants,  com- 
mission men,  and  brokers.  The  dealer 
is  one  who  buys  the  goods  outright  and  takes 
his  own  risk  on  making  a  favorable  sale  to 
the  retailer.  The  commission  man  is  one 
who  receives  the  goods,  sells  them  at  such 
price  as  he  may  be  able  to  obtain  and  remits 
to  the  seller  the  amount  obtained  less  ex- 
penses and  his  commission.  The  broker  is 
a  man  who  effects  a  sale  without  coming  in 
contact  in  any  way  with  the  materials  sold. 
A  cheese  broker,  for  example,  receives  in- 
struction from  different  factories  to  sell  for 
them  a  certain  quantity  of  cheese  of  a  given 
kind  and  quality  each  week  or  month  as  the 
case  may  be.  At  the  same  time  he  receives 
220 


MARKETING 

from  grocery  stores  which  retail  cheese 
orders  for  various  amounts,  kinds  and  qual- 
ity of  cheeses.  With  this  information  at 
hand,  he  directs  the  various  factories  intrust- 
ing their  business  to  him  to  ship  the  kind, 
quantity,  and  quality  of  cheese  required  by 
his  several  customers.  For  such  service  he 
receives  a  brokerage,  which  is  less  than  that 
charged  by  a  commission  man  because  he  is 
not  required  to  handle  or  store  the  material. 
Since  the  different  farm  products  are  pur- 
chased by  different  classes  of  retailers,  and 
since  their  handling  and  sale  require  differ- 
ent facilities  and  special  knowledge,  there 
have  arisen  in  the  great  centers  of  trade 
different  kinds  of  markets,  each  having  its 
particular  facilities  for  the  handling,  care 
and  sale,  and  each  conducted  by  commission 
men  or  brokers  with  a  special  knowledge 
of  the  trade.  Furthermore,  certain  cities 
have  become,  on  account  of  their  favorable 
position — to  mention  but  one  reason — head- 
quarters for  certain  products  or  groups  of 
products.  Thus  Petersburg,  Virginia,  has 
the  principal  wholesale  market  for  peanuts. 
221 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

Elgin,  Illinois,  has  been  noted  for  its  butter 
market.  St.  Louis  is  the  leading  mart  for 
mules. 

In  a  general  way,  the  following  five  more 
or  less  distinct  and  important  classes  of 
markets  for  farm  products  may  be  recog- 
nized: Grain,  Live  Stock,  Produce,  Cotton 
and  Tobacco. 

METHODS  OF  TRADE 

The  brokers  or  commission  men  doing 
business  in  any  one  of  these  markets  usually 
form  an  association  called  a  board  of  trade, 
chamber  of  commerce  or  similar  title  for 
the  purpose  of  assisting  "each  other  in  the 
pursuit  of  common  ends."  The  result  has 
been  uniformity  of  methods  and  charges; 
but  above  all  in  importance,  perhaps,  has 
been  the  definition  of  classes  and  grades  of 
the  products  placed  on  sale.  The  tendency 
is  for  the  associations  in  the  different  cities 
to  adopt  uniform  rules  for  the  grading  of 
products,  so  that  No.  2  red  winter  wheat 
may  mean  the  same  thing  in  Toledo  and 
New  York;  that  the  quotation  on  prime 
222 


MARKETING 

beef  may  refer  to  the  same  quality  of  cattle 
in  Pittsburgh  as  it  does  in  Chicago ;  and  that 
No.  i  Timothy  hay  in  Baltimore  and  St. 
Louis  may  be  alike.  While  the  tendency  is 
towards  uniformity,  much  yet  remains  to  be 
accomplished.  The  shipper  must  be  on  his 
guard  lest  he  suffer  loss  through  the  varia- 
tions in  the  classification  or  variations  in 
their  interpretations  on  the  different 
markets. 

There  has  grown  up  around  these  markets 
some  agency  which  stands  as  a  disinterested 
party  between  seller  and  buyer  impartially 
determining  the  weight  and  in  some  cases 
the  quality  of  the  object  under  negotiation. 
The  State  of  Illinois  employs  agents  who  in- 
spect all  cars  of  grain  consigned  to  the 
Chicago  market.  These  inspectors  deter- 
mine the  kind,  grade  and  weight  of  the 
grain  in  each  car.  The  car  is  then  delivered 
under  seal  to  the  purchaser.  If  either  seller 
or  buyer  is  dissatisfied  with  the  inspector's 
decision  he  may,  by  complying  with  certain 
regulations,  have  this  decision  reviewed  by 
a  higher  authority.  The  decision  of  this 
223 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

higher  authority  is  final  and  must  be 
accepted  by  both  parties.  Brokers  selling 
grain  in  carload  lots  ship  the  cars  subject  to 
the  weight  and  grade  as  determined  by  the 
inspector  at  Chicago.  Grain  of  a  specific 
grade  may  thus  be  bought  in  Chicago  or 
other  great  grain  markets  with  almost  per- 
fect security  as  to  weight  and  quality  by 
persons  living  in  any  part  of  this  or  any 
other  country.  At  Elgin  the  quality  of  but- 
ter is  determined  by  a  committee  appointed 
by  the  Board  of  Trade  from  its  own  mem- 
bers. In  the  live  stock  markets,  the  stock 
yards  company,  in  addition  to  furnishing 
yards,  shelter,  food  and  water,  acts  as  agent 
between  seller  and  buyer  in  determining  the 
weight  of  the  animals.  The  purchaser  or 
his  agent  must  determine  for  himself  the 
quality  of  the  animals  he  buys. 

GRAIN  MARKETS 

The  Chicago  and   St.    Paul   Boards  of 
Trade   and   the  New  York   Produce   Ex- 
change  are   the   three   great   agencies   for 
dealing    in    grain    in    the    United    States. 
224 


MARKETING 

Buffalo,  Duluth,  Baltimore  and  Philadel- 
phia are  also  important  markets.  Adjuncts 
to  these  markets  are  the  great  terminal  ele- 
vators capable  of  holding  almost  indefi- 
nitely enormous  quantities  of  wheat  and 
other  grain.  On  the  Pacific  Coast  all  the 
wheat  is  handled  in  the  bags,  as  is  the  cus- 
tom in  the  other  markets  of  the  world. 
Canada  and  the  United  States  alone  have 
recognized  the  principle  that  wheat  and 
other  grains  will  run  like  water,  which  has 
been  a  prime  factor  in  their  competition 
with  other  nations. 

Country  elevators  charge  two  cents  a 
bushel  for  storage  during  the  first  15  days 
and  1/2  cent  for  each  additional  15  days.  The 
charge  for  storage  at  terminal  elevators  for 
the  first  15  days  is  ^4  cent.  The  farmer 
may  thus  store  his  wheat  in  an  elevator  in 
place  of  his  farm  if  he  chooses  so  to  do, 
although  the  wheat  he  thus  puts  in  storage 
may  have  been  made  into  flour  and  con- 
sumed before  he  sells  it.  This  may  be 
looked  upon  as  a  sort  of  intermediary  step 
225 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

between  storing  wheat  in  one's  own  granary 
and  dealing  in  futures. 

The  country  shipper  pays  ]/z  cent  a  bushel 
commission  for  the  sale  of  wheat.  There  is 
also  a  charge  for  inspection  and  insurance, 
and,  in  case  there  is  an  advance  payment, 
for  interest.  After  five  days  there  are  stor- 
age charges.  This  has  given  rise  to  the  ex- 
pression, gilt  edge,  regular  and  short  re- 
ceipts, depending  upon  the  length  of  time 
there  remains  before  storage  charges  must 
be  paid.  Every  market  has  a  grade  known 
as  contract  grade,  meaning  the  quality  that 
must  be  furnished  when  wheat  or  other 
grain  is  sold  without  specifying  the  grade. 
In  Chicago  No.  2  red  winter  wheat  is  the 
contract  grade.  Where  grain  is  sold  or  pur- 
chased by  a  broker,  the  brokerage  is  usually 
Y%  cent  per  bushel. 

HAY  MARKETS 

At  least  twenty  cities  have  adopted  the 

rules  of  the  National  hay  association  as  to 

classes  and  grades  of  hay  and  straw.    The 

southern  states  constitute  an  important  mar- 

226 


MARKETING 

ket  for  the  hay  of  the  north  central  states, 
while  Boston,  New  York  and  the  mining 
towns  of  Pennsylvania  are  important  mar- 
kets for  the  northeastern  states.  The  size 
of  bale  varies  from  75  to  200  pounds.  Small 
bales  of  100  pounds  each  are  preferred  in 
Baltimore,  medium  bales  of  no  to  140 
pounds  in  Philadelphia,  while  New  York 
and  Boston  usually  deal  in  the  larger  bales. 
The  commission  charges  vary  from  50  cents 
to  $i  per  car.  In  New  York,  $i  pays  all 
charges.  At  Chicago,  $3  per  car  has  been 
charged  for  the  inspection,  divided  equally 
between  seller  and  buyer. 

PRODUCE  MARKETS 

Every  town  of  any  consequence  has  its 
produce  market.  The  South  Water  street 
district  in  Chicago  and  the  West  Washing- 
ton street  market  in  New  York  are  noted  for 
their  extent  and  variety.  There  are  also 
many  special  markets  for  certain  classes  of 
produce.  Thus  Elgin,  Chicago  and  New 
York  have  butter  exchanges.  Wisconsin, 
Utica,  Watertown  and  Cuba  (New  York) 
227 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

maintain  exchanges  where  cheese  is  placed 
on  sale  each  week  during  the  manufacturing 
season.  There  is  also  a  board  of  trade  for 
cheese  in  New  York  City.  The  prices 
quoted  upon  these  exchanges  are  made  the 
basis  of  many  transactions  between  buyer 
and  seller,  who  never  enter  these  markets. 
Not  only  do  buyers  and  sellers  agree  to 
abide  by  the  quotations  of  one  or  the  other  of 
these  markets,  but  the  quotations  are  also 
used  as  a  basis  of  settlement  for  milk  fur- 
nished the  creamery  or  factory.  These 
agencies  are  thus  impartial  arbiters  in  count- 
less financial  transactions. 

The  rate  of  commission  varies  in  differ- 
ent markets  and  for  different  products. 
Generally,  however,  produce  is  handled  on 
a  5%  basis,  but  for  individual  products 
which  are  especially  bulky  and  difficult  to 
handle,  such  as  cabbage,  10%  may  be 
charged.  In  some  cases  commission  is  by 
quantity  instead  of  on  a  percentage  basis. 
Thus  for  potatoes  the  commission  is  some- 
times 10%  and  in  other  cases  4  or  5  cents  a 
bushel. 

228 


MARKETING 

LIVE  STOCK  MARKETS 

While  poultry  and  game,  as  well  as  the 
carcasses  of  the  smaller  animals,  may  be 
handled  through  the  produce  markets,  the 
large  animals  require  separate  facilities. 
The  United  States  is  noted  for  its  large  live 
stock  markets  and  for  the  perfection  and 
size  of  the  packing  houses  which  have 
grown  up  about  them.  The  most  famous 
example  of  these  combined  agencies  is  to 
be  found  at  Chicago,  but  important  live 
stock  markets  are  also  maintained  at  St. 
Louis,  Kansas  City,  Omaha,  Pittsburgh, 
Buffalo  and  more  recently  Fort  Worth, 
Texas.  The  commission  charges  vary  from 
50  cents  to  $i  per  head  for  cattle  and  from 
10  to  25  cents  per  head  for  calves,  sheep  and 
hogs.  In  some  markets,  the  commission  on 
hogs  is  2%  of  the  gross  returns.  When 
located  within  150  miles  of  a  central  mar- 
ket, it  is  customary  to  allow  50  cents  per 
hundred  pounds  for  cattle  and  40  cents  for 
hogs  to  cover  shrinkage,  and  cost  of  freight, 
yardage,  food,  bedding  and  commission.  It 
229 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

is  possible  for  an  owner  to  sell  his  own  live 
stock  in  these  yards,  but  the  commission 
man,  because  of  his  superior  knowledge  of 
existing  trade  conditions,  is  almost  univer- 
sally employed.  Firms  which  handle  cat- 
tle, sheep  and  hogs  seldom  sell  horses. 
Although  handled  by  different  commission 
firms,  important  horse  markets  are  main- 
tained at  Chicago  and  Buffalo  immediately 
adjacent  to  the  market  for  meat  animals.  In 
New  York  the  horse  markets  are  in  a  differ- 
ent section  of  the  city,  that  for  draft  and 
common  work  horses  on  one  street,  while 
the  American  Horse  Exchange,  located  at 
another  point,  handles  high-class  light 
horses.  The  usual  custom  is  to  sell  horses 
at  auction,  although  they  may  be  purchased 
at  private  treaty.  In  whatever  manner  pur- 
chased, it  is  essential  to  understand  precisely 
the  character  of  the  guarantee. 

COTTON,  WOOL  AND  TOBACCO  MARKETS 

Because  of  their  higher  value  per  pound 
and  the  ease  with  which  they  can  be  stored, 
cotton,  wool  and  tobacco  are  dealt  in  some- 
230 


C.  W.  Zuck  &  Sons,  Eiie,  Pa.  One  son  was  a  student  in  agriculture  at 
the  Pennsylvania  State  College.  Father  and  three  sons,  beginning  six  years 
ago  with  a  run-down  farm  of  55  acres,  have  built  an  acre  of  glass  and  a 
heating  plant  of  260  horsepower.  During  the  period  they  have  spent  $5,000 
on  the  place  and  at  the  end  of  season  they  will  have  very  nearly  cleared 
their  Improvements.  "Tell  the  youthful  readers  of  your  book  to  get  as  much 
education  as  possible  and  then  go  in  partnership  with  their  fathers  or 
brothers.  If  they  do,  success  will  be  theirs." 


MARKETING 

what  differently  than  other  farm  products. 
The  two  great  cotton  exchanges  are  located 
at  New  Orleans  and  New  York,  the  quota- 
tions on  these  markets  controlling  the  finan- 
cial transactions  in  cotton  throughout  the 
world.  The  principal  wool  markets  are 
Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  St. 
Louis.  The  principal  tobacco  markets  are 
at  Richmond  and  Danville,  Va.,  Durham, 
N.  C.,  and  Louisville,  Ky. 

The  country  shipper  or  the  young  farmer 
wishing  to  place  his  products  in  the  ordinary 
channels  of  trade  must  consider  and  deter- 
mine among  other  things  the  following: 
What  cities  have  favorable  markets  for  his 
products;  choose  some  commission  man  or 
broker  to  handle  them;  calculate  the  ex- 
penses for  freight,  commission  and  other 
customary  items;  familiarize  himself  with 
the  rules  for  grading  his  products  in  the 
market  or  markets  under  consideration ;  and 
determine  what  agency  there  may  be  for 
protecting  him  as  to  the  weight  and  quality 
when  sales  are  effected.  Whenever  prac- 
ticable, a  visit  to  the  market  in  question  and 
231 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

a  personal  study  of  the  conditions  under 
which  selling  is  done  will  be  wise.  Having 
done  so,  and  perhaps  having  made  a  num- 
ber of  sales  through  these  usual  channels  of 
trade,  he  will  be  in  a  position  to  consider 
whether  he  may  organize  to  advantage  some 
more  direct  method  of  getting  his  products 
to  the  consumer. 


232 


CHAPTER  XX 

LAWS  AFFECTING  LAND  AND 
LABOR 

THUS  far  property  has  been  treated  as 
invested  capital  upon  which  interest 
must  be  charged  in  determining  the  labor 
income.  Labor,  likewise,  has  been  consid- 
ered principally  in  its  effect  upon  profits. 
Society  has  thrown  around  the  transfer  of 
property  and  the  use  of  labor  certain 
restraints  for  the  protection  of  all  individ- 
uals. 

Through  the  ages  certain  procedures  have 
become  fixed  by  custom.  These  legal  prac- 
tices are  largely  the  inheritance  of  old 
Roman  law  and  are  usually  known  as  com- 
mon law.  Various  legislative  bodies  hav- 
ing jurisdiction  enact  from  time  to  time 
other  laws.  This  body  of  enacted  law  is 
called  statute  law  and  is  much  more  varia- 
ble than  common  law.  In  the  briefest  possi- 
ble manner  it  is  the  purpose  here  to  state  a 
few  of  the  principles  and  applications  of  the 

233 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

law,  chiefly  the  common  law,  as  it  affects  the 
farmer  in  acquiring  or  disposing  of  his 
property  and  in  his  dealings  with  labor. 

PROPERTY 

Property  may  be  defined  as  anything 
which  is  a  subject  of  ownership.  It  possesses 
the  characteristics  of  being  acquired,  held, 
sold,  willed  or  inherited  and  is  of  two  kinds : 
(i)  Real  property,  real  estate  or  realty;  (2) 
chattels  or  personal  property.  These  two 
kinds  of  property  are  subject  to  quite  dis- 
tinct legal  practices.  In  general,  real  estate 
consists  of  land,  things  attached  to  it,  such  as 
trees,  buildings,  fences  and  certain  rights 
and  profits  arising  out  of  or  annexed  to  the 
land.  The  term  land  as  ordinarily  used  in- 
cludes all  these  things,  so  that  when  land  is 
said  to  be  worth  so  much  an  acre  it  includes 
all  fixtures.  Ponds  and  streams  are,  under 
this  definition,  land.  The  land  not  only  has 
surface  dimensions,  but  extends  upward 
indefinitely  and  down  to  the  center  of  the 
earth,  and  hence  includes  a  right  to  ores, 
coal,  oil,  gas  or  other  materials  whatsoever. 

234 


LAWS  AFFECTING  LAND  AND  LABOR 

An  article  may,  however,  be  real  property 
or  personal  property  depending  upon  cir- 
cumstances. Thus  a  tree  growing  on  the 
land  is  real  property,  but  when  cut  into  cord 
wood  becomes  personal  property.  New 
fence  posts  ready  for  use  are  personal  prop- 
erty. When  set  in  the  ground  they  become 
real  estate.  Just  what  goes  with  a  farm  or 
what  are  fixtures  is  frequently  a  subject  for 
legal  determination. 

FIXTURES 

The  general  rule  is  that  "fixtures  are  any 
chattels  which  have  become  substantially 
and  permanently  annexed  to  the  land  or  to 
buildings  or  other  things  which  are  clearly 
a  part  of  the  land."*  The  annexation  may, 
however,  be  purely  theoretical,  since  the 
keys  to  the  house  or  barn,  which  may  be  in 
the  owner's  pocket,  are  real  estate.  One 
rule  concerning  fixtures  is  that  they  must  be 
so  annexed  that  they  cannot  be  severed  with- 
out injuring  the  freehold.  The  intention  of 
the  party  making  the  annexation  also  often 


*Haigh's  "Manual  of  Law,"  p.  69. 
235 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

determines,  since  if  the  article  is  annexed 
with  the  intention  of  making  it  permanent, 
it  then  becomes  a  part  of  the  land.  Among 
the  things  held  to  be  fixtures,  and  therefore 
a  part  of  the  land,  are:  (i)  All  buildings 
and  everything  which  is  a  part  of  any  build- 
ing, such  as  doors,  blinds,  keys,  etc.;  (2) 
fence  materials  which  have  been  once  used 
and  are  piled  up  to  be  used  again  are  a  part 
of  the  land,  but  new  fence  material  not  yet 
used  is  personal  property.  (3)  Growing 
crops  are  real  property.  They  go  to  the  pur- 
chaser of  the  land  unless  specially  reserved 
in  the  deed.  A  verbal  agreement  is  not 
sufficient.  (4)  Trees,  if  blown  down  or  cut 
down  and  still  lying  where  they  fell,  are 
real  property;  if  cut  or  corded  up  for  sale 
they  become  personal  property.  (5)  All 
manure  made  on  the  farm  is  real  estate  and 
passes  with  the  land.  (6)  All  the  ordinary 
portable  machines  and  tools  are  considered 
personal  property,  but  certain  machines 
held  to  be  of  permanent  use  upon  the  land 
are  real  estate.  Among  the  things  which 
courts  have  held  to  go  with  the  land  are 
236 


LAWS  AFFECTING  LAND  AND  LABOR 

cotton  gins,  copper  kettles  encased  in  brick 
and  mortar  for  cooking  food  for  hogs,  cider 
mills,  pumps,  water  pipes  bringing  water 
from  distant  springs.  In  general,  motive 
power  machinery  and  the  shafting  go  with 
the  land,  but  the  machinery  impelled  may  or 
may  not,  depending  upon  the  way  it  is  an- 
nexed. (7)  If  stones  have  been  quarried  for 
the  purpose  of  using  upon  the  farm,  they  go 
with  the  farm,  but  if  quarried  for  sale  they 
are  personal  property. 

CONTRACTS 

The  difference  between  personal  prop- 
erty and  real  property  may  be  indicated  by 
considering  the  essential  features  of  a  con- 
tract. A  contract  is  an  agreement  between 
two  or  more  persons.  The  foundation  rule 
concerning  a  contract  is  that  every  man  must 
fulfill  every  agreement  he  makes.  An  ethi- 
cal practice  grows  out  of  this  legal  rule 
which,  if  strictly  adhered  to,  will  save  much 
embarrassment,  viz.,  make  but  few  promises 
and  always  keep  your  engagements. 

There  are  seven  requirements  generally 
237 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

necessary  to  a  valid  contract.  ( i )  Possibil- 
ity. The  thing  to  be  done  must  be  possible. 
(2)  Legality.  It  must  not  be  forbidden  by 
law.  (3)  Proper  parties.  The  parties  to  a 
contract  must  be  competent.  Contracts 
with  idiots  or  drunken  persons  are  not  bind- 
ing. Some  contracts  with  minors  are  not 
binding,  although  contracts  for  the  necessi- 
ties of  life  are.  (4)  Mutual  assent.  A 
proposition  not  assented  to  by  both  parties  is 
not  binding  on  either.  (5)  Valid  consider- 
ation. A  man  is  not  regarded  as  injured  by 
the  breaking  of  a  promise  for  which  he  has 
paid,  or  is  to  pay,  nothing.  (6)  Fraud  or 
deceit.  A  contract  obtained  by  fraud  is  void 
as  against  the  party  using  the  fraud,  but  may 
be  enforced  by  the  innocent  party  if  he  sees 
fit.  (7)  Written  contracts.  Here  comes  the 
most  important  difference  between  real  and 
personal  property.  Real  property  can  only 
be  conveyed  by  a  written  instrument,  prop- 
erly executed  and  recorded,  while  personal 
property  passes  by  mere  possession.  Con- 
tracts relating  to  the  sale  of  real  estate  are 
not  binding  unless  in  writing,  while  verbal 
238 


LAWS  AFFECTING  LAND  AND  LABOR 

contracts  are  sufficient  for  personal 
property  if  accompanied  by  payment  of  a 
part  of  the  purchase  price  or  the  acceptance 
of  the  goods.  For  amounts  under  $50  ver- 
bal agreement  in  itself  is  binding. 

TRANSFER  OF  REAL  ESTATE 

The  purchaser  should  require  of  the 
seller  evidence  that  the  title  to  the  land  is 
straight  and  clear;  if  not,  exactly  what  the 
defects  are.  This  is  done  through  an 
abstract  of  title,  which  should  be  prepared 
by  a  competent  lawyer.  This  is  not  an  offi- 
cial document,  and  its  value  depends  largely 
upon  the  ability  and  watchfulness  of  the 
party  making  the  abstract.  Ownership  of 
land  is  conveyed  by  means  of  a  deed.  A 
deed  is  an  instrument  conveying  at  least  a 
life  interest  in  the  land.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  the  deed  contains  the  essential 
parts  and  that  it  is  properly  executed. 

DEEDS 

Deeds  are  of  two  kinds :  Quit  claim  deeds, 
which  convey  all  the  rights,  title  and  inter- 
239 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

est  which  the  seller  has  in  the  land,  but  does 
not  warrant  the  title;  and  warranty  deeds, 
which,  in  addition  to  what  a  quit  claim 
does,  contain  covenants  which  agree  that  the 
seller  and  his  heirs,  etc.,  shall  warrant  and 
defend  the  title  to  the  purchaser  against  the 
lawful  claims  of  all  persons. 

THE  REQUISITES  OF  A  DEED 

The  requisites  of  a  deed  are:  The  parties 
to  the  deed,  the  consideration,  the  descrip- 
tion; and  with  a  warranty  deed,  the  cove- 
nants. The  seller  must  be  of  full  age,  sound 
mind  and  if  married  his  wife  should  always 
join  in  the  deed.  Her  name  should  appear 
following  his  at  the  beginning  of  the  instru- 
ment. She  should  sign  and  acknowledge  the 
deed,  and  the  certificate  of  acknowledgment 
should  state  that  she  is  the  wife  of  the  seller. 
If  the  seller  is  a  married  woman,  her  hus- 
band does  not  need  to  join  in  the  sale  of  her 
own  property.  It  is  customary  to  state  the 
consideration  upon  which  the  deed  is  given, 
but  this  is  not  necessary,  nor  will  a  false 
240 


LAWS  AFFECTING  LAND  AND  LABOR 

statement  as  to  the  amount  paid  invalidate 
the  deed. 

The  description  of  the  land  conveyed 
should  be  as  minute  and  careful  as  possible, 
and  preferably  in  the  exact  language  of 
former  deeds.  In  case  former  description 
is  in  error,  it  should  be  referred  to  and  cor- 
rect description  given.  Where  land  is  con- 
veyed by  metes  and  bounds,  this  description 
governs,  although  it  may  not  convey  the 
number  of  acres  of  land  stated.  In  describ- 
ing boundaries  the  location  of  monuments 
takes  precedence  of  distances  mentioned. 

EXECUTION  OF  THE  DEED 

A  deed  must  be  signed,  witnessed, 
acknowledged,  delivered  and  recorded.  In 
some  states  deeds  must  be  sealed,  but  in 
other  states  the  law  has  dispensed  with  this 
formality.  Witnesses  to  deeds  are  not  re- 
quired in  all  states.  Some  states  require  one, 
but  usually  two  witnesses  are  required.  The 
parties  signing  the  deed  are  required  to 
appear  before  an  official  designated  by 
241 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

statute,  usually  any  magistrate,  justice  or 
notary  public,  and  acknowledge  the  same  to 
be  his  or  her  free  act  and  deed. 

A  deed  has  no  effect  until  delivered,  and 
should  be  immediately  recorded  by  the  pur- 
chaser. Generally  an  unrecorded  deed  is 
not  good  as  against  a  subsequent  purchaser 
in  good  faith.  It  is  well  to  note  that  the 
laws  relating  to  the  transfer  of  land  are 
those  of  the  place  where  the  land  lies  and 
not  necessarily  those  of  the  place  where  the 
deed  is  made. 

METHOD  OF  LAYING  OUT  PUBLIC  LANDS 

The  public  lands  of  the  United  States  are, 
whenever  practicable,  laid  out  into  town- 
ships each  six  miles  square,  "as  near  as  may 
be,"  whose  sides  run  due  north  and  south 
and  east  and  west.  The  townships  are  laid 
off  north  and  south  of  a  base  line  which  is 
a  parallel  of  latitude,  and  are  numbered 
north  and  south  from  the  base  line:  Thus, 
T.  3  S.,  means  Township  No.  3  south  from 
the  base  line.  Each  row  of  townships  run- 
242 


LAWS  AFFECTING  LAND  AND  LABOR 


ning  north  and  south  is  called  a  range,  and 
is  numbered  east  or  west  of  the  principal 
meridian:  Thus,  R.  2  E.,  means  Range  2 
east  of  the  given  meridian. 

The  townships  are  then  laid  off  into  sec- 
tions or  square  miles  of  640  acres,  "as  near 
as  may  be,"  and  these  are  numbered,  begin- 
ning always  at  the  northeast  section,  as 
shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram. 

N 


w 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

Each  quarter  section  is  referred  to  as  the 
northeast  or  southwest  quarter  of  the  section, 
and  each  forty  acres  as  the  northwest  or 
southeast  quarter  of  a  particular  quarter. 
For  example,  an  eighty-acre  field  may  be 
referred  to  as  the  west  half  of  the  southwest 

243 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

quarter  of  Section  3,  Township  5  North, 

Range  3,  west  of — .  Base  line 

and  meridian,  or  in  some  cases  merely  the 
meridian  is  mentioned. 

The  curvature  of  the  earth's  surface  makes 
it  impossible  for  the  sides  of  townships 
to  be  truly  north  and  south  and  at  the  same 
time  six  miles  square.  The  excesses  and  the 
deficiencies  due  to  the  convergency  of  merid- 
ians and  the  curvature  of  the  earth  are  by 
law  added  to  or  deducted  from  the  western 
and  northern  ranges  of  sections  and  half 
sections  of  the  townships.  While  the  above 
has  been  the  rule  in  laying  out  public  lands 
for  more  than  a  century,  there  are  many  ex- 
ceptions, due  to  many  causes. 

In  the  older  settled  sections  the  land  was 
laid  out  in  lots,  often  in  a  very  irregular 
manner,  although  in  some  cases  within  a 
given  tract  the  area  was  more  or  less  regu- 
lar. In  these  cases,  the  land  must  be  de- 
scribed minutely  and  carefully  by  metes  and 
bounds.  In  some  of  the  southern  and  west- 
ern states,  also,  where  there  were  Spanish 
grants,  much  irregularity  in  the  surveys 
244 


LAWS  AFFECTING  LAND  AND  LABOR 

exists.  Over  much  of  the  north  Central 
states  this  rectangular  system  of  laying  out 
lands  obtains  and  has  worked  well  in  most 
respects. 

THE  LANDLORD  AND  TENANT 

Leases  of  real  estate  follow  the  same  pro- 
cedure as  deeds,  except  that  a  verbal  lease, 
if  for  a  term  of  not  to  exceed  one  year,  is 
valid  in  most  states.  A  written  lease  should 
be  carefully  drawn,  because,  according  to 
common  law,  there  are  few  things  implied 
in  a  lease  that  are  not  stated.  Definite  state- 
ment concerning  repairs  and  insurance  is 
desirable.  A  tenant  should  also  acquaint 
himself  with  the  law  of  the  state  concerning 
the  surrender  of  the  farm  upon  the  expira- 
tion of  his  term. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  tenant  not  only  to 
guard  the  property,  but  to  conduct  the  farm 
in  a  husbandlike  manner.  Unless  otherwise 
stated  in  the  contract,  the  tenant  must  pur- 
sue those  methods  of  husbandry  which  are 
customary  in  the  vicinity. 

245 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

THE  RELATION  OF  THE  FARMER  TO  HIS 
WORKMEN 

The  requirements  of  a  valid  contract,  as 
previously  stated,  control  most  of  the  rela- 
tions which  the  employer  has  with  his  em- 
ployees. Contracts  for  labor,  unless  for 
more  than  one  year,  need  not  be  in  writing. 
If,  however,  the  service  to  be  rendered  is 
unusual,  the  agreement  should  be  reduced  to 
writing,  because,  in  the  absence  of  specific 
agreement,  the  law  assumes  that  customary 
service  and  wages  are  implied. 

Like  all  other  employers  of  labor  the 
farmer  is  under  obligation  to  protect  his 
workman  from  injury.  He  must  not  sub- 
ject them  to  unusual  and  unreasonable  risks. 
He  must  hire  workmen  suited  to  the  em- 
ployment. For  example,  if  he  employs  a 
young  boy  to  drive  a  fractious  horse,  he 
would  be  liable  for  any  injury  that  might 
occur.  In  like  manner,  he  must  exercise 
proper  care  concerning  the  safety  of  the 
machinery  placed  in  the  hands  of  his  work- 
men. He  must  keep  his  premises  in  a  safe 
246 


LAWS  AFFECTING  LAND  AND  LABOR 

condition  and  must  not  expose  his  workmen 
to  risks  not  incident  to  the  employment  for 
which  they  are  hired. 

The  farmer  is  liable  in  damages  for  the 
acts  of  his  workmen  which  are  within  the 
scope  of  their  employment,  although  the 
authority  may  not  have  been  expressly  con- 
ferred. "He  who  acts  by  another  acts  him- 
self." In  case  one  is  sued  for  the  acts  of  his 
employee,  the  burden  is  upon  him  to  prove 
that  the  act  of  the  workman  was  without 
authority,  expressed  or  implied. 


247 


CHAPTER  XXI 
RURAL  LEGISLATION 

VARIOUS  laws  have  been  enacted  by 
federal  and  state  legislatures  for  the 
better  protection  of  producer  and  consumer. 
Much  of  this  legislation  affects  in  a  very 
special  way  the  interests  of  the  farmer.  Not 
infrequently,  in  fact,  generally,  the  state 
department  of  agriculture  has  more  or  less 
direct  jurisdiction  over  their  enforcement. 
State  departments  of  agriculture  usually 
publish  a  collection  of  the  laws  of  this  char- 
acter. These  laws  vary  greatly  in  the  differ- 
ent states  and  only  the  most  general  outline, 
as  they  affect  the  interests  of  the  farmer,  can 
be  given  here.  Persons  can  inform  them- 
selves as  to  the  details  as  enforced  in  a  given 
state  by  applying  to  the  state  secretarv  of 
agriculture. 

A  number  of  these  acts  affect  interstate 

commerce,   concerning  which   the   United 

States  Constitution  says:    "No   state   shall, 

without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 

248 


RURAL  LEGISLATION 

impost  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  ex- 
cept what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for 
executing  its  inspection  laws."  By  a  series 
of  judicial  decisions  it  has  been  determined 
that  a  State  has  a  right  to  enforce  laws 
affecting  interstate  commerce  when  traffic 
in  the  articles  thus  modified  or  prohibited 
affects  the  public  welfare.  When  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  a  police  regulation  to  prevent 
fraud  in  the  traffic  of  an  article  or  for  the 
purpose  of  guarding  the  public  health  or 
morals,  police  laws,  so  called,  may  be  en- 
acted and  enforced.  Around  this  general 
question  there  has  waged  a  bitter  contro- 
versy which  has  occupied  some  of  the  best 
legal  minds  and  is  one  involving  some  diffi- 
culty. 

FERTILIZER  CONTROL 

One  of  the  first  of  the  "control"  measures 
to  be  enacted,  and  the  one  which  has  been 
most  universally  adopted  by  the  several 
states,  is  the  law  requiring  the  manufacturer 
and  dealer  in  commercial  fertilizers  to  guar- 
antee the  percentage  of  the  so-called  essen- 
249 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

tial  fertilizing  elements — nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus and  potassium — contained  in  each 
bag  of  fertilizer  offered  for  sale.  Subse- 
quent control  laws  have  been  modeled  more 
or  less  closely  after  this  law.  Hence  a  de- 
scription of  the  operation  and  execution  of 
it  will  serve  for  all. 

The  execution  of  this  law  is  usually  under 
the  immediate  supervision  of  the  state  sec- 
retary of  agriculture,  while  the  necessary 
chemical  analyses  are  made  by  the  state 
experiment  station.  In  some  states  the  en- 
forcement of  the  law  is  in  charge  of  the  state 
experiment  station,  while  in  others  the  state 
department  of  agriculture  has  its  own  labor- 
atories or  employs  a  private  chemist.  It  is, 
however,  becoming  a  more  and  more  settled 
policy  to  place  all  police  regulations  in 
charge  of  the  state  department  of  agricul- 
ture, while  at  the  same  time  the  chemical 
analyses  and  other  scientific  and  technolog- 
ical inquiries  are  made  at  the  state  experi- 
ment station. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  taking  of  sam- 
ples and  in  order  to  raise  funds  for  the 
250 


RURAL  LEGISLATION 

execution  of  the  law,  the  manufacturer  is 
required  to  take  out  a  license  and  to  make  a 
statement  of  the  brands  of  fertilizers  which 
he  will  place  upon  the  market  in  the  given 
state  during  the  given  season. 

During  the  spring  and  fall  season  agents 
traverse  the  state  and  sample  the  bags  of 
fertilizers  as  found  on  sale  by  local  mer- 
chants. The  samples  are  sent  by  number 
under  seal  to  the  designated  chemist,  while 
at  the  same  time  the  agent  transmits  to  the 
state  officer  in  charge  of  the  enforcement  of 
the  law  the  necessary  information  concern- 
ing these  samples.  Upon  the  receipt  of  the 
analysis  made  by  the  chemist,  who  has  had 
no  knowledge  of  the  origin  of  the  sample, 
the  state  officer  compares  them  with  the 
guarantee  of  the  manufacturer,  and  if  he 
finds  it  necessary  enters  legal  complaint. 
While  these  laws  have  been  in  force  for 
many  years  in  some  states  and  in  many  states 
for  some  years,  prosecution  has  seldom  been 
found  necessary.  The  honest  manufacturer 
is  protected  from  dishonest  competition,  and 
the  dishonest  manufacturer,  if  there  be  such, 
251 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

cannot  afford  the  publicity  which  noncom- 
pliance  with  the  law  would  entail. 

It  has  been  customary  to  publish,  with  the 
results  of  analysis,  also  an  estimate  of  the 
commercial  value  per  ton  of  each  brand  of 
fertilizer.  This  estimated  commercial  value 
is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  pounds  of 
each  element  or  combinations  of  the  element 
in  a  ton  by  a  value  per  pound.  To  the  value 
of  the  fertilizer  thus  obtained  is  added  some- 
thing for  cost  of  mixing,  bagging 
and  freight,  and  something  for  profit. 
The  price  per  pound  given  to  each 
element  or  combinations  of  the  elements 
is  based  upon  the  commercial  value  of 
the  element  when  purchased  in  raw  mate- 
rials. The  price  for  each  year  is  usually 
determined  by  a  conference  of  those  in  con- 
trol of  the  execution  of  the  law  in  the  sev- 
eral states  for  certain  groups  of  states.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  price  varies  little  from 
year  to  year. 

The  published  figures,  therefore,  consti- 
tute a  table  of  comparative  commercial 
values  as  determined  by  the  most  expert 
252 


RURAL  LEGISLATION 

knowledge.  While  not  constituting  a  state- 
ment of  absolute  commercial  value  for  any 
given  locality,  they  do  enable  the  purchaser 
to  determine  whether  the  price  quoted  on  a 
given  brand  of  fertilizer  is  within  reason. 
Persons  who  are  unacquainted  with  the 
principles  controlling  the  use  of  commercial 
fertilizers  may,  however,  be  led  to  believe 
that  the  price  of  the  fertilizer  is  an  indica- 
tion of  its  value  for  the  production  of  a 
given  crop.  As  is  well  known  to  all  stu- 
dents of  the  subject,  there  is  no  necessary 
relation  between  the  commercial  value  of  a 
fertilizer  and  the  fitness  of  its  formula  for 
a  given  soil  and  crop.  For  these  and  other 
reasons,  the  publication  of  tables  of  com- 
mercial value  has  been  strongly  opposed  by 
some  manufacturers,  and  in  certain  states 
the  custom  has  been  discontinued.  While 
granting  that  tables  of  commercial  value  are 
subject  to  misinterpretation,  it  is  perhaps 
fair  to  say  that  such  tables  have  been  of  most 
benefit,  and,  moreover,  have  been  of  great 
value  to  those  who  were  most  likely  to  mis- 
interpret them. 

253 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

It  has  been  customary  in  most  states  to 
make  analyses  only  of  mixed  fertilizers. 
Thus  such  raw  materials  as  nitrate  of  soda, 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  dried  blood,  bone 
meal,  rock  phosphate,  tankage,  muriate  of 
potash,  sulphate  of  potash,  have  not  been 
brought  under  the  operation  of  the  law.  If 
one  wishes  to  purchase  nitrate  of  soda, 
muriate  of  potash  and  tankage  with  the  in- 
tention of  mixing  them  according  to  a 
formula  of  his  own,  he  may  not  find  any 
protection  in  his  state.  However,  these  pro- 
ducts can  be  obtained  through  reputable 
dealers  who  will  willingly  guarantee  the 
contents.  In  case  of  doubt,  the  purchaser 
may  secure  an  analysis  by  his  state  experi- 
ment station  at  a  moderate  cost. 

The  law  requires  that  there  shall  be 
affixed  to  every  package  of  fertilizer  offered 
for  sale  a  statement  about  as  follows : 

The  minimum  per  centum  of  each  of  the  following 
constituents  which  may  be  contained  therein: 

(a)  Nitrogen. 

(b)  Soluble,    available   and    total    phosphoric   acid, 
except  in  cases  of  undissolved  bone,  basic  slag  phosphate, 

2S4 


RURAL  LEGISLATION 

wood  ashes,  unheated  phosphate  rock,  garbage  tankage 
and  pulverized  natural  manures,  when  the  minimum 
per  centum  of  total  phosphoric  acid  may  be  substituted. 
This  latter  applies  only  in  those  states  where  raw  mate- 
rials are  subject  to  inspection. 

(c)   Potash  soluble  in  distilled  water. 

It  is  possible  to  comply  with  the  law  and 
yet  state  the  guarantee  upon  each  bag  of 
fertilizer  in  such  a  manner  as  to  mislead  the 
uninformed.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this 
book  to  deal  with  such  technical  details,  but 
if  the  purchaser  of  commercial  fertilizers  is 
not  already  well  acquainted  with  fertilizer 
terms,  he  should  secure  an  elementary  text- 
book on  the  subject  or  write  to  his  state  ex- 
periment station  for  a  bulletin  discussing 
them. 

FEEDING  STUFF  CONTROL 

The  law  controlling  the  sale  of  stock  foods 
is  of  more  recent  origin  than  the  fertilizer 
control  act  and  has  not  been  so  universally 
adopted  up  to  the  present  time.  The  neces- 
sity for  such  a  law  arises  from  the  growing 
use  as  stock  foods  of  various  by-products  in 

255 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

the  manufacture  of  liquors,  starch,  glucose, 
sugar,  cottonseed  and  linseed  oils  and  break- 
fast foods.  Various  mixtures,  varying 
widely  in  chemical  composition,  especially 
in  protein  and  crude  fiber,  were  placed  upon 
the  market.  In  some  instances  mixtures 
were  grossly  adulterated  with  such  things 
as  oat  hulls  and  ground  corn  cobs. 

The  adoption  of  this  law  by  certain  states 
has  served  to  make  other  states  the  dumping 
ground  for  inferior  stock  foods,  thus 
increasing  the  necessity  for  similar  protec- 
tion. The  law  does  not  apply  to  the  ordi- 
nary grains  produced  by  farmers  or  to  the 
usual  by-products  of  millers. 

SEED  CONTROL 

From  time  immemorial  it  has  been  the 
universal  custom  of  seedsmen  to  disclaim  all 
responsibility  for  the  purity  and  germinat- 
ing power  of  their  seeds.  But  as  the  impor- 
tance of  good  seed — good  in  hereditary 
power,  good  in  germination,  good  in  its  free- 
dom from  adulteration,  good  in  its  absence 
of  noxious  weed  seed — has  become  better 
256 


RURAL  LEGISLATION 

understood  demand  for  some  method  of  con- 
trol has  arisen.  In  at  least  one  state  there  is 
a  seed-control  law  modeled  quite  closely 
after  the  fertilizer-control  law.  However, 
the  usual  method  of  protection  consists  in 
purchasing  by  sample  or  the  insistence  of  a 
guarantee,  with  a  subsequent  "analysis"  of 
a  sample  of  the  purchased  seed. 

The  germinating  power  and  purity  of 
seed  can  be  determined  cheaply  by  an  ex- 
pert within  from  five  to  twenty  days,  de- 
pending upon  the  species.  The  federal  gov- 
ernment has  a  division  of  seed  control  in  its 
Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington, 
D.  C.  Any  person  may  send  a  sample  of  seed 
to  this  division  and  have  its  purity  and 
germinating  power  determined,  and  in  some 
of  the  states  the  experiment  station  will 
perform  similar  services  without  charge. 
Clover,  alfalfa,  grass  and  other  small  seeds 
should  always  be  purchased  subject  to  such 
inspection,  unless  the  purchaser  is  prepared 
to  make  his  own  inspection,  which  a  very 
little  training  makes  possible. 
257 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

NURSERY  INSPECTION 

There  is  no  national  law  concerning  the 
importation  of  insect-infested  or  diseased 
plant  stock. 

Several  of  the  states  have  passed  both 
state  and  interstate  regulations  concerning 
the  sale  of  nursery  stock.  The  insects  usu- 
ally legislated  against  are  San  Jose  scale, 
gypsy  moth  and  brown-tail  moth,  while  the 
diseases  usually  interdicted  are  yellows, 
black  knot,  peach  rosette,  and  pear  blight. 

The  enforcement  of  the  law  is  usually 
placed  in  charge  of  a  person  having  special 
knowledge  of  economic  insects  and  fungous 
diseases.  In  addition  to  these  police  regula- 
tions this  officer  may,  by  various  means, 
attempt  to  bring  into  practice  methods  cal- 
culated to  eradicate  or,  at  least,  lessen  the 
severity  of  existing  attacks. 

Commerce  in  vinegar,  dried  fruits,  insec- 
ticides and  fungicides  is  also  regulated  in 
some  states. 

DAIRY,  FOOD  AND  DRUG  INSPECTION 
An  adequate  discussion  of  the  rise  and 

258 


RURAL  LEGISLATION 

development  of  the  control  in  the  sale  of 
dairy  and  food  products  would  require  a 
chapter  by  itself,  if  not  an  entire  volume. 
Suffice  it  to  say  here  that  the  laws  on  this 
general  subject  have  acquired  an  impor- 
tance in  many  ways  quite  beyond  that  of  any 
of  the  other  control  measures  discussed  in 
this  chapter.  In  the  extent  of  funds  handled, 
the  number  of  agents  employed  and  the  pub- 
lic interest  incited,  the  office  of  dairy  and 
food  commissioner  outranks  any  other  con- 
trol agency.  In  some  states  the  office  is  an 
elective  one,  and  the  questions  with  which 
the  office  has  to  deal  become  a  part  of  the 
state  political  campaign. 

The  importance  of  the  inspection  of  dairy 
and  food  products  grows  out  of  the  fact  that 
not  only  is  the  consumer,  hence  all  the 
world,  interested,  but  the  execution  of  these 
laws  touch  large  commercial  interests.  Not 
only  are  meat  packers,  distillers  and  brew- 
ers deeply  interested,  but  the  wholesale  and 
retail  grocers  and,  more  recently,  the  man- 
ufacturing and  prescribing  druggists,  are 
vitally  concerned. 

259 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

Not  many  years  ago  the  inspection  of 
dairy  products,  particularly  control  of  the 
traffic  in  oleomargarine,  was  the  chief  func- 
tion of  this  office.  To-day  the  enforcement 
of  laws  concerning  pure  foods,  liquor  and 
drugs  is  of  much  greater  importance. 

Interstate  commerce  in  oleomargarine  is 
now  regulated  through  the  enactment  of  an 
internal  revenue  law  requiring  a  tax  of  ten 
cents  a  pound  on  colored  oleomar- 
garine and  one-fourth  of  a  cent  a  pound 
on  uncolored  oleomargarine  and,  fur- 
ther, by  prescribing  the  character  of 
package  and  method  of  marking  all  oleo- 
margarine entering  into  interstate  com- 
merce. State  agencies  are  charged  with  the 
duty  of  requiring  the  compliance  of  local 
dealers  and  restaurateurs  with  the  general 
features  of  the  federal  law.  Some  states, 
however,  prohibit  entirely  the  sale  of  col- 
ored oleomargarine  within  the  state. 

PURITY  IN  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 

Attempts  to  define  what  is  pure  milk, 
cream,  butter  or  cheese  have  been  fraught 
260 


RURAL  LEGISLATION 

with  much  difficulty.  Thus,  for  example, 
legal  definitions  of  pure  milk  have  resulted 
in  some  cows  giving  illegal  milk.  In  some 
instances  the  law  has  declared  simply  that 
whole  milk  is  milk  from  which  no  cream 
has  been  removed;  in  others,  the  minimum 
amount  of  butter  fat  has  been  prescribed;  in 
still  others,  the  minimum  amount  of  total 
solids  containing  a  minimum  proportion  of 
butter  fat  has  been  made  the  basis  of  legal 
milk.  In  like  manner  full  cream  cheese 
has  been  defined  as  cheese  made  from  whole 
milk  or  from  milk  from  which  only  a  given 
amount  of  cream  has  been  removed,  while 
•in  other  instances  the  minimum  amount  of 
butter  fat  which  full  cream  cheese  may  con- 
tain is  prescribed.  The  wide  variation  in 
the  amount  of  butter  fat  carried  by  cream 
has  caused  much  jocular  comment  and  some 
serious  discussion  as  to  what  is  cream. 

While  it  is  not  feasible  to  indicate  the 
laws  for  the  several  states,  the  ruling  of  the 
federal  government  as  to  what  constitutes 
purity  in  dairy  products  under  the  national 
food  and  drug  act  may  be  accepted  as  a  gen- 
261 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

eral  guide.  A  circular  giving  the  required 
information  may  be  secured  by  addressing 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
D.  C. 

LIVE  STOCK  SANITATION 

The  control  of  contagious  diseases  in 
domestic  animals  and  the  inspection  of  meat 
products  have  been  the  chief  work  of  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  since  its 
establishment. 

The  bureau  inspects  all  imported  live  ani- 
mals and  under  certain  conditions  will 
inspect  live  animals  intended  for  exporta- 
tion. It  inspects  all  meat  products  intended 
for  export.  Its  inspection  of  meats  intended 
for  interstate  commerce  is  less  rigid  than 
that  exported.  Meats  sold  within  the  state 
in  which  they  are  slaughtered  cannot  be 
required  by  the  federal  government  to  un- 
dergo inspection.  It  thus  happens  that  the 
people  of  the  several  states  enjoy  less  pro- 
tection in  the  consumption  of  meat  than  the 
foreign  purchaser  of  American  meats  unless 
262 


RURAL  LEGISLATION 

there  is  a  state  meat  inspection  law.  How- 
ever, it  is  becoming  more  and  more  the 
custom  for  the  large  packers  to  have  all 
their  products  inspected  without  regard  to 
their  destination.  The  meats  slaughtered  in 
the  locality  in  which  they  are  consumed  are 
the  ones  that  receive  the  least  supervision. 

The  federal  government  has  been  espe- 
cially active  and  efficient  in  the  prevention 
of  interstate  commerce  in  cattle  suffering 
with  Texas  fever,  and  sheep  attacked  with 
scab  and  foot  rot.  Through  the  agency  of 
the  bureau  dipping  tanks  have  been  pro- 
vided in  all  the  great  live  stock  markets  for 
the  disinfection  of  cattle  and  sheep  when 
needed. 

Several  of  the  states  have  laws  controlling 
the  importation  of  diseased  animals  from 
other  states  and  the  transfer  of  them  within 
the  state.  The  following  are  the  diseases 
most  commonly  mentioned  in  the  laws  of  the 
several  states:  Anthrax,  black  quarter,  hog 
cholera,  swine  plague,  rabies,  glanders  and 
tuberculosis.  The  law  is  generally  enforced 
by  a  state  veterinarian,  whose  acts  are  super- 
263 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

vised  either  by  a  state  live  stock  commission 
or  the  state  secretary  of  agriculture  or  these 
two  agencies  acting  conjointly. 

Perhaps  the  disease  which  has  required 
the  greatest  amount  of  attention  in  the  sev- 
eral states  is  tuberculosis  in  milch  cows.  It 
is  customary  for  this  office  to  apply  the 
tuberculin  test,  free  of  charge,  under  cer- 
tain stipulations,  to  any  herd  upon  the 
request  of  the  owner  and  to  supervise  the 
slaughter  and  disposition  of  the  reacting 
animals.  In  some  states  the  owner  is  indem- 
nified in  part  or  in  whole  for  his  loss.  The 
amount  of  indemnity  as  well  as  the  general 
features  of  the  law  concerning  the  control 
of  tuberculosis  in  domestic  animals  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  controversy  and  cannot 
be  said  to  have  reached  an  altogether  satis- 
factory solution  in  most  states. 

The  young  farmer  should  clearly  under- 
stand that  under  no  circumstances  can  he 
afford  to  have  a  tuberculous  animal  in  his 
herd.  The  contact  of  a  diseased  animal 
with  other  animals  of  the  herd  is  certain  to 
entail  a  greater  loss  than  the  destruction  of 
264 


RURAL  LEGISLATION 

the  diseased  animal.  The  farmer  must  in 
his  own  interest  rear  healthy  animals 
whether  or  not  it  is  necessary  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  consumer. 

FISH  AND  GAME  LAWS 

The  motives  underlying  the  enactment  of 
laws  concerning  fish  and  game  are  varied. 
The  controversies  over  these  laws  in  the  leg- 
islatures of  the  several  states  indicate  that 
there  is  a  belief,  whatever  may  be  the  fact, 
that  there  are  opposing  interests;  viz.,  those 
of  the  hunter  or  sportsman  on  the  one  hand, 
and  those  of  the  farmer  or  landowner  on  the 
other.  The  law  of  trespass  has  been  one 
over  which  has  raged  much  bitterness,  both 
with  regard  to  the  form  of  the  law  to  be 
enacted  and  concerning  its  subsequent  en- 
forcement. Sportsmen  have  usually  held 
that  a  distinction  existed  between  wild  ani- 
mals occupying  private  property  and 
domestic  animals.  The  landowner  has 
urged  that  others  should  not  trespass  upon 
his  property  for  the  purpose  of  shooting 
265 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

wild  animals,  although  his  proprietary  right 
in  them  was  no  greater. 

In  like  manner,  laws  concerning  the 
closed  season,  made  to  protect  animals  dur- 
ing the  breeding  period,  are  the  subject  of 
extended  discussion  and  are  being  con- 
stantly changed;  both  because  there  is  a 
difference  of  opinion  concerning  the  habits 
of  the  different  species  and  because  the  mo- 
tive varies  for  maintaining  the  supply.  Some 
animals  are  protected  on  account  of  their 
benefit,  supposed  or  real,  to  agriculture. 
Other  animals  are  protected  because  of 
their  gaming  qualities,  even  to  the  extent 
of  sometimes  injuring  farm  crops.  The 
money  spent  by  sportsmen  in  the  pursuit 
of  game  is  an  element  in  the  varied  inter- 
ests involved.  Humane  motives  and  a 
desire  to  prevent  the  further  restriction  of  a 
not  too  varied  fauna  have  helped,  also,  to 
save  certain  species  from  extinction.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  some  states  commercial 
interests  are  involved,  as  where  large  quan- 
tities of  birds  are  taken  for  their  plumage. 

Some  attempts  have  been  made  to  intro- 
266 


RURAL  LEGISLATION 


duce  foreign  species,  as  the  Japanese  pheas- 
ant. It  is,  however,  with  fish  that  the  most 
has  been  accomplished  in  replenishment. 
The  federal  government  and  several  of  the 
states  have  been  active  in  regularly  restock- 
ing, each  season,  certain  streams  with  "fry" 
of  edible  and  game  fish. 

Information  concerning  the  open  season 
can  be  obtained  from  the  proper  state 
officer.  The  fish  and  game  laws  are  usually 
under  the  control  of  a  commission  with  a 
secretary  as  the  executive  officer. 


267 


CHAPTER  XXII 
RURAL  FORCES 

THE  United  States  is  a  vast  domain.  Its 
material  resources  are  enormous.  Its 
fertile  and  easily  tilled  soil,  its  magnificent 
forests,  its  great  stores  of  ore,  coal,  oil  and 
gas;  its  fine  water-power  sites  and  its  tem- 
perate and  healthful  climate  have  all  con- 
tributed to  the  making  of  a  prosperous  and 
progressive  nation.  Without  these  natural 
resources  the  United  States  could  not  be 
what  it  is. 

The  waste  of  some  of  these  resources  is 
almost  beyond  belief.  In  mining,  one-half 
the  anthracite  and  one-third  the  soft  coal  is 
left  in  the  ground  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
may  never  be  economically  recovered.  A 
ton  of  coal  will  produce  1,400  pounds  of 
coke,  worth  $1.50,  and  20  pounds  of  sul- 
phate of  ammonia,  worth  50  cents.  If  all 
the  nitrogen  in  coal  which  is  turned  into 
coke  in  Pennsylvania  were  recovered,  it 
would  furnish  enough  of  this  element  to 
268 


RURAL  FORCES 

supply  the  needs  of  every  acre  of  tillable 
soil  in  that  state.  Only  about  44%  of  the 
wood  in  the  trees  now  harvested  in  the 
United  States  is  incorporated  into  buildings, 
apparatus  and  furniture.  The  rest  is  wasted 
in  the  process  of  cutting,  sawing  and  manu- 
facturing into  the  finished  products. 

Facts  like  these  have  led  the  nation  to 
realize  that  the  conservation  of  our  natural 
resources  is  an  immediate  and  pressing 
problem.  The  United  States  has,  however, 
a  greater  inheritance  than  these  great  and 
beneficent  gifts  of  nature  and  a  more  funda- 
mental problem  than  the  preservation  and 
efficient  use  of  them.  In  a  single  sentence, 
the  greatest  inheritance  of  the  American 
people  is  their  Puritan  ancestry.  The  word 
Puritan  is  here  used  to  apply  not  only  to  the 
New  England  Pilgrims,  but  to  all  our  early 
forefathers,  whose  traditions  and  practices 
have  served  to  set  this  country  apart  from 
the  other  countries  of  the  world.  Because 
of  the  traditions  which  have  been  handed 
down  to  us,  we  are  healthier-bodied  and 
cleaner-minded  men  and  women.  We  are 
269 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

more  efficient,  not  merely  in  making  money, 
but  in  everything  that  goes  to  make  a  full 
and  well-rounded  life. 

It  is  well  to  realize  the  resources  of  other 
nations.  The  agricultural  possibilities  of 
France  appear  to  the  casual  observer  to  com- 
pare favorably  with  any  equal  area  in  the 
United  States.  One  may  see  farm  land  in 
Italy  which  has  been  cultivated  for  at  least 
two  thousand  years  which  is  evidently  as 
fertile  as  any  of  the  limestone  valleys  of  the 
Atlantic  States,  the  prairies  of  the  Missis- 
sippi valley  or  the  Palouse  district  of  the 
Northwest.  Russia  has  enormous  areas  of 
fertile  soil.  Careful  observers  report  that 
in  Manchuria  there  are  great  stretches  of 
country,  which  today  possess  natural  oppor- 
tunities similar  to  those  which  the  Missis- 
sippi valley  offered  one  hundred  years  ago. 
The  recent  stories  of  the  deposits  of  coal  and 
mineral  wealth  in  China  are  almost  fabu- 
lous. Europe  has  rich-  mines,  great  forests 
and  unrivaled  water-power. 

Some  years  ago  a  native  of  Argentina  and 
a  native  of  the  United  States  were  dining 
270 


RURAL  FORCES 

together.  The  Argentinian  had  served  his 
government  as  consul  to  Canada.  He 
related  that  he  had  recently  written  an  offi- 
cial letter  in  which  he  had  occasion  to  refer 
to  the  people  of  Canada  and  to  those  of 
this  country.  He  explained  that  in  allud- 
ing to  the  former  he  could  say  the  Cana- 
dians, but  the  latter  he  could  not  call  Amer- 
icans, since  his  people  were  also  Americans. 
After  due  consideration  he  referred  to  us  as 
"the  Yankees."  "But,"  turning  to  his 
hearer,  he  said,  with  great  emphasis.  "I  do 
not  look  upon  the  people  of  the  United 
States  as  a  nation,  but  as  a  new  civilization." 
In  other  words,  our  nation  is  not  simply  one 
of  fertile  farms,  enormous  mines,  great  for- 
ests, unparalleled  railroad  systems,  palatial 
stores,  or  wealthy  cities,  but  he  saw  that  we 
are  a  people  of  different  economic,  political, 
educational,  social,  moral  and  religious 
ideals. 

There  are  in  every   rural   neighborhood 

certain  forces  whose  objects  are  to  increase 

the    educational     advantages,     the     social 

opportunities  and  the  moral  aspirations  of 

271 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

the  people.  This  subject  need  not  be  dis- 
cussed merely  in  the  abstract.  There  are 
in  every  community  concrete  evidences  of 
these  forces.  There  is  the  rural  church. 
There  is  the  rural  school.  In  many  locali- 
ties are  to  be  found,  also,  buildings,  for 
social  and  fraternal  purposes,  as  grange 
halls,  structures  for  holding  fairs  and  pic- 
nics. These  are  tangible  evidences  that 
there  are  rural  agencies  at  work  in  the  com- 
munity whose  chief  purpose  is  to  increase 
the  educational  advantages,  the  social 
opportunities  and  the  moral  aspirations  of 
the  people. 

How  are  these  existing  rural  forces  to  be 
made  more  effective?  If  co-operation  in 
financial  affairs  is  essential  under  modern 
conditions,  it  is  more  needed  in  social  mat- 
ters. Such  co-operation  does  not  imply  that 
these  separate  forces  shall  be  fused  into  a 
single  one.  Each  of  them  has  its  particular 
and  peculiar  work  to  do,  but  each  should 
work  in  harmony  and  not  in  the  spirit  of 
antagonism  with  the  others. 

There  should  be  formed  in  each  locality 
272 


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f|  «~g 

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xof -°  £  ^r 
•t:  £  *  x  E  «>  «J 

e-s  Mi  "^  S 
8  £  .S  E I  o  * 

•=  «  b  «  k  M-= 


o  »  »• 


RURAL  FORCES 

a  committee  for  which  the  following  name 
is  proposed :  The  Community  Committee  of 
Rural  Forces.  Emphasis  should  be  placed 
upon  the  word  "community."  Like  all 
moral  movements,  progress  must  come  from 
within,  and  not  from  without.  The  move- 
ment must  be  adapted  to  its  environment. 
Like  the  plants  that  grow  there,  it  must  be 
indigenous  to  the  soil. 

This  committee  should  be  composed  of 
representatives  of  the  churches,  the  schools, 
farmers'  clubs,  granges,  fair  associations, 
farmers'  institutes ;  and  other  organizations 
which  are  striving  to  increase  the  educa- 
tional advantages,  the  social  opportunities 
and  the  moral  aspirations  of  the  people. 

Oftentimes  the  object  of  these  rural  forces 
is  confused  with  efforts  to  increase  the  finan- 
cial prosperity  of  the  farmer.  It  goes  with- 
out saying  that  the  maintenance  of  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  is  essential  to  the  food 
supply  of  the  nation.  The  problems  of  the 
economic  production  of  plants  and  animals 
are  of  great  importance  to  the  prosperity  of 
the  farmer.  The  idea,  however,  that  the 

273 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

proper  solution  of  these  economic  problems 
is  to  be  the  means  of  solving  the  educational, 
social  and  religious  problems  is  simply 
putting  the  cart  before  the  horse.  Economic 
questions  can  only  be  satisfactorily  adjusted 
through  the  application  of  intelligence  and 
right  ideas. 

Let  it  be  supposed  that  when  a  young  man 
decides  to  pay  attention  to  a  young  woman 
that  instead  of  meeting  her  at  the  church 
door,  or  it  may  be  at  the  railway  station,  it  is 
considered  better  form  for  him  to  get  per- 
mission of  the  mother  to  call  upon  the 
young  woman  in  her  own  home.  This  is  the 
most  fundamental  question  in  every  neigh- 
borhood. What  has  it  to  do  with  the  price 
of  wheat? 

This  illustration  has  been  used  to  empha- 
size two  points.  First,  there  are  many  prob- 
lems in  every  community  that  are  in  no  way 
related  to  the  material  prosperity  of  the 
neighborhood.  Second,  there  is,  at  present, 
no  single  force  in  the  community  with  suffi- 
cient influence  to  cope  properly  with  many 
of  these  problems. 

274 


RURAL  FORCES 

A  young  college  graduate  who  is  now 
managing  eight  hundred  acres  of  land 
recently  wrote :  "I  firmly  believe  that  one  of 
the  best  opportunities  to  be  of  help  to  a  rural 
community  lies  in  the  work  that  is  to  be 
done  for  the  improvement  of  social  condi- 
tions— to  help  make  what  little  leisure  there 
is  clean  and  refreshing."  Hence  on  return 
from  college  this  young  man  has  found 
time  to  play  football  and  baseball  with  local 
teams  and  to  help  whenever  opportunity 
offered  at  dances,  musicales  and  similar  en- 
tertainments. Games  and  other  forms  of 
recreation  may  be  clean  and  wholesome,  or 
they  may  be  quite  the  reverse.  It  would  be 
the  duty  of  the  community  committee  to  see 
that  dances  occurred  under  proper  environ- 
ment— not  next  an  open  saloon — and  that 
the  young  women  were  properly  chap- 
eroned. 

In  many  communities  the  boys  and  girls 
are  almost  wholly  dependent  upon  the 
neighboring  towns  for  their  amusement. 
This  condition  may  or  may  not  be  desirable. 
If  the  town  and  country  are  virtually  one 

275 


THE  YOUNG   FARMER 

community,  there  is  every  reason  why  the 
boys  and  girls  from  the  farms  should  find 
recreation  and  social  intercourse  with  the 
boys  and  girls  of  the  village.  It  is  a  rela- 
tionship that  should  be  fostered  wherever 
possible.  When,  however,  the  town  and 
the  country  are  separate  communities,  which 
prevent  the  ordinary  social  relationships,  it 
is  usually  unfortunate  when  the  young  peo- 
ple of  the  one  community  are  dependent 
upon  the  other  community  for  their  amuse- 
ments. 

A  deeply  earnest  man  recently  said:  "I 
was  born  and  raised  upon  the  farm.  I  never 
knew  a  dull  day  in  my  life.  I  went  fishing. 
I  went  hunting  and " 

"Stop  right  there,"  said  the  listener. 
"There  is  not  the  same  opportunity  today 
for  a  boy  to  go  hunting  that  there  was  when 
you  were  a  boy." 

"That  is  true." 

"Our  ideas  about  such  things  have 
changed,  also." 

"Yes,"  he  replied,  humbly  enough,  for  he 
was  a  man  of  fine  fiber. 
276 


RURAL  FORCES 

'0 

"I  propose  a  substitute,"  said  the  listener. 
"There  is  much  more  pleasure  and  recrea- 
tion to  be  obtained  from  photographing  ani- 
mals than  from  killing  them.  What  is 
needed  in  every  rural  community  is  a 
camera  club." 

When  a  boy  wishes  to  go  hunting,  he 
merely  has  to  buckle  on  his  ammunition 
pouch,  shoulder  his  gun  and  he  is  ready.  A 
camera  club,  however,  requires  a  social 
organization  and  a  social  center.  The  com- 
munity committee  would  thus  be  required 
to  decide  whether  the  facilities  for  develop- 
ing and  printing  pictures  may  best  be 
located  at  the  church,  the  schoolhouse,  the 
grange  hall  or  elsewhere. 

A  little  reflection  will  show  how  many 
possibilities  such  a  club  might  have  on  its 
social,  moral  and  educational  side.  The 
suggestion  has  been  made  here,  however, 
only  as  an  illustration  of  the  problems  which 
arise  when  a  rural  community  is  organized 
for  social  welfare.  The  organization  of  a 
book  club,  or  a  magazine  club  in  a  rural 
community  presents  precisely  the  same 
277 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

problems.  Some  method  must  be  devised 
for  exchanging  the  books  or  magazines. 
Whether  they  are  exchanged  at  the  church, 
the  grange  hall  or  through  the  school  chil- 
dren will  depend  upon  local  conditions 
requiring  a  community  committee  to  decide. 

This  community  committee  will  do  some- 
thing more  than  reach  immediate  results. 
It  may  project  its  influence  far  into  the 
future.  Not  all  of  life  is  comprised  in  a 
porcelain  bathtub  and  nickel  adornments. 
Nevertheless  modern  methods  of  heating 
and  plumbing  are  desirable  in  the  country 
as  well  as  in  the  city.  In  Indiana  there  is 
a  one-room  school  building.  In  the  base- 
ment there  has  been  placed  a  furnace  and 
a  gasoline  engine.  The  engine  is  used  not 
only  to  teach  the  boys  how  to  run  a  gasoline 
engine,  but  it  makes  possible  a  modern  sys- 
tem of  plumbing. 

It  is  well  known  that  many  of  the  states 
within  the  past  decade  have  voted  to  abolish 
or  very  materially  restrict  the  sale  of  alco- 
holic beverages.  No  great  temperance  ora- 
tors have  roused  the  people  as  was  the  case 
278 


RURAL  FORCES 

thirty  years  or  more  ago.  Why,  then,  has 
such  progress  been  made  in  recent  years? 
In  large  part  because  twenty-five  years  ago, 
the  teaching  of  physiology  was  introduced 
into  the  public  schools,  which  taught  the 
evil  effects  of  alcohol  to  the  human  system. 
During  the  past  decade  young  men  who 
studied  these  physiologies  have  been  voting. 

What  has  the  teaching  of  physiology  to 
do  with  the  one-room  schoolhouse  in  In- 
diana with  its  modern  system  of  plumbing? 
The  girls  between  the  ages  of  six  and  four- 
teen are  now  becoming  accustomed  to  mod- 
ern systems  of  plumbing.  When  they  grow 
older  and  marry  they  will  find  some  way  to 
introduce  similar  conveniences  into  their 
homes  without  regard  to  the  price  of  wheat. 
A  wise  community  committee  will  find 
many  ways  to  influence  future  generations. 
Such  a  committee  would  be  a  priceless 
heritage  to  any  community. 

The    natural    resources    of    the    United 

States  are  necessary  to  the  prosperity  of  the 

people.     The   preservation   and   economic 

use  of  these  resources  are  of  vast  importance. 

279 


THE  YOUNG  FARMER 

The  natural  resources  of  the  world  were, 
however,  as  great  five  thousand  years  ago 
as  they  are  today.  The  soil  was  no  less  fer- 
tile then  than  now.  The  difference  between 
the  prosperity  of  the  human  race  at  these 
two  periods  is  caused  by  a  difference  in 
human  motive  and  efficiency.  It  is  the  result 
of  ideals  and  knowledge.  Sit  at  the  banquet 
table  with  men  who  are  the  real  powers  in 
shaping  the  affairs  of  the  world.  The 
chances  are  that  the  champagne  remains  un- 
touched. These  men  are  not  in  the  habit  of 
partaking  of  midnight  suppers.  They  must 
keep  themselves  fit  for  the  next  day's  work. 
They  have  the  approval  and  loyalty  of  their 
wives  because  they  deserve  it.  In  other 
words,  the  men  who  do  the  world's  work  are 
not  drunkards.  They  are  not  gluttons.  They 
are  not  libertines.  They  are  efficient 
because  they  have  healthy  bodies  and  clean 
minds.  It  is  this  efficiency  which  the  critic 
from  Argentina  saw  when  he  said,  "I  do  not 
look  upon  the  people  of  the  United  States 
as  a  nation,  but  as  a  new  civilization." 


280 


STANDARD  BOOKS 

PUBLISHED  BY 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 

ASHLAND  BUILDING  PEOPLE'S  GAS  BUILDING 

315-321  Fourth  Avenue  150    Michigan  Avenue 


Any  of  these  books  will  be  sent  by  mail,  postpaid,  to 
any  part  of  the  world,  on  receipt  of  catalog  price.  We  are 
always  happy  to  correspond  with  our  patrons,  and  cordially 
invite  them  to  address  us  on  any  matter  pertaining  to  rural 
books-  Send  for  our  large  illustrated  catalog,  free  on  appli- 
cation. 

First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility 

By  ALFRED  VIVIAN.  There  is  no  subject  of  more  vital 
importance  to  the  farmer  than  that  of  the  best  method 
of  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  very  evident 
decrease  in  the  fertility  of  those  soils  which  have  been 
under  cultivation  for  a  number  of  years,  combined  with 
the  increased  competition  and  the  advanced  price  of  labor, 
have  convinced  the  intelligent  farmer  that  the  agriculture 
of  the  future  must  be  based  upon  more  rational  practices 
than  those  which  have  been  followed  in  the  past.  We 
have  felt  for  some  time  that  there  was  a  place  for  a 
brief,  and  at  the  same  time  comprehensive,  treatise  on 
this  important  subject  of  Soil  Fertility.  Professor  Vivian's 
experience  as  a  teacher  in  the  short  winter  courses  has 
admirably  fitted  him  to  present  this  matter  in  a  popular 
style.  In  this  little  book  he  has  given  the  gist  of  the 
subject  in  plain  language,  practically  devoid  of  technical 
and  scientific  terms.  It  is  pre-eminently  a  "First  Book," 
and  will  be  found  especially  valuable  to  those  who  desire 
an  introduction  to  the  subject,  and  who  intend  to  do  subse- 
quent reading.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  265  pages.  Cloth. 

Net,  $1.00 

The  Study  of  Corn 

By  PROF.  V.  M.  SHOESMITH.  A  most  helpful  book  to  all 
farmers  and  students  interested  in  the  selection  and  im- 
provement of  corn.  It  is  profusely  illustrated  from  photo- 
graphs, all  of  which  carry  their  own  story  am'  contribute 
their  part  in  making  pictures  and  text  mattet  r\  clear,  con- 
cise and  interesting  study  of  corn.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches. 

100  pages.     Cloth Net,  $0.50 

(1) 


Profitable  Stock  Raising 

By  CLARENCE  A.  SHAMEL.  This  book  covers  fully  the 
principles  of  breeding  and  feeding  for  both  fat  stock  and 
dairying  type.  It  tells  of  sheep  and  mutton  raising,  hot 
house  lambs,  the  swine  industry  and  the  horse  market. 
Finally,  he  tells  of  the  preparation  of  stock  for  the  market 
and  how  to  prepare  it  so  that  it  will  bring  a  high  market 
price.  Live  stock  is  the  most  important  feature  of  farm 
life,  and  statistics  show  a  production  far  short  of  the 
actual  requirements.  There  are  many  problems  to  be 
faced  in  the  profitable  production  of  stock,  and  these  are 
fully  and  comprehensively  covered  in  Mr.  Shamel's  new 
book.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  288  pages.  Cloth. 

Net,  $1.50 

The  Business  of  Dairying 

By  C.  B.  LANE.  The  author  of  this  practical  little  book 
is  to  be  congratulated  on  the  successful  manner  in  which 
he  has  treated  so  important  a  subject.  It  has  been  pre- 
pared for  the  use  of  dairy  students,  producers  and  handlers 
of  milk,  and  all  who  make  dairying  a  business.  Its  pur- 
pose is  to  present  in  a  clear  and  concise  manner  various 
business  methods  and  systems  which  will  help  the  dairy- 
man to  reap  greater  profits.  This  book  meets  the  needs 
of  the  average  dairy  farmer,  and  if  carefully  followed  will 
lead  to  successful  dairying.  It  may  also  be  used  as  an 
elementary  textbook  for  colleges,  and  especially  in  short- 
course  classes.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  300  pages.  Cloth. 

Net,  $1.25 

Questions  and  Answers  on  Butter/making 

By  CHAS  A.  PUBLOW.  This  book  is  entirely  different 
from  the  usual  type  of  dairy  books,  and  is  undoubtedly  in 
a  class  by  «tself.  The  entire  subject  of  butter-making  in 
all  its  branches  has  been  most  thoroughly  treated,  and 
many  new  and  important  features  have  been  added.  The 
tests  for  moisture,  salt  and  acid  have  received  special 
attention,  as  have  also  the  questions  on  cream  separa- 
tion, pasteurization,  commercial  starters,  cream  ripening, 
cream  overrun,  marketing  of  butter,  and  creamery  man- 
agement. Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  100  pages.  Cloth. 

Net,  $0.50 

Questions  and  Answers  on  Milk  and  Milk  Testing 

By  CHAS.  A.  PUBLOW,  and  HUGH  C.  TROY.  A  book  that 
no  student  in  the  dairy  industry  can  afford  to  be  without. 
No  other  treatise  of  its  kind  is  available,  and  no  book  of 
its  size  gives  so  much  practical  and  useful  information  in 
the  study  of  milk  and  milk  products.  Illustrated.  5x7 

inches.      100    pages.      Cloth Net,  $0.50 

(3) 


Soils 

By  CHARLES  WILLIAM  BURKETT,  Director  Kansas  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station.  The  most  complete  and 
popular  work  of  the  kind  ever  published.  As  a  rule,  a 
book  of  this  sort  is  dry  and  uninteresting,  but  in  this  case 
it  reads  like  a  novel.  The  author  has  put  into  it  his  in- 
dividuality. The  story  of  the  properties  of  the  soils,  their 
improvement  and  management,  as  well  as  a  discussion  of 
the  problems  of  crop  growing  and  crop  feeding,  make  this 
book  equally  valuable  to  the  farmer,  student  and  teacher. 
Illustrated.  303  pages.  5^x8  inches.  Cloth.  .  Net,  $1.25 

Weeds  of  the  Farm  Garden 

By  L.  H.  PAMMEL.  The  enormous  losses,  amounting 
to  several  hundred  million  dollars  annually  in  the  United 
States,  caused  by  weeds  stimulate  us  to  adopt  a  better 
system  of  agriculture.  The  weed  question  is,  therefore, 
a  most  important  and  vital  one  for  American  farmers. 
This  treatise  will  enable  the  farmer  to  treat  his  field  to 
remove  weeds.  The  book  is  profusely  illustrated  by  photo- 
graphs and  drawings  made  expressly  for  this  work,  and 
will  prove  invaluable  to  every  farmer,  land  owner,  gar- 
dener and  park  superintendent.  5x7  inches.  300  pages. 
Cloth Net,  $1.50 

Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors 

By  J.  B.  DAVIDSON  and  L.  W.  CHASE.  Farm  Machinery 
and  Farm  Motors  is  the  first  American  book  published 
on  the  subject  of  Farm  Machinery  since  that  written  by 
J.  J.  Thomas  in  1867.  This  was  before  the  development 
of  many  of  the  more  important  farm  machines,  and  the 
general  application  of  power  to  the  work  of  the  farm. 
Modern  farm  machinery  is  indispensable  in  present-day 
farming  operations,  and  a  practical  book  like  Farm  Ma- 
chinery and  Farm  Motors  will  fill  a  much-felt  need.  The 
book  has  been  written  from  lectures  used  by  the  authors 
before  their  classes  for  several  years,  and  which  were  pre- 
pared from  practical  experience  and  a  thorough  review  of 
the  literature  pertaining  to  the  subject.  Although  written 
primarily  as  a  text-book,  it  is  equally  useful  for  the  prac- 
tical farmer.  Profusely  illustrated.  5^2x8  inches.  520 
pages.  Cloth Net,  $2.00 

The  Book  of  Wheat 

By  P.  T.  DONDLINGER.  This  book  Comprises  a  complete 
study  of  everything  pertaining  to  wheat.  It  is  the  work 
of  a  student  of  economic  as  well  as  agricultural  condi- 
tions, well  fitted  by  the  broad  experience  in  both  practical 
and  theoretical  lines  to  tell  the  whole  story  in  a  condensed 
form.  It  is  designed  for  the  farmer,  the  teacher,  and  the 
student  as  well.  Illustrated.  5^x8  inches.  370  pages. 

Cloth Net,  $2.00 

(4) 


Farmer's  Cyclopedia 
of  Agriculture 


A  Compendium  of  Agricultural  Science  and  Prac- 
tice on  Farm,  Orchard  and  Garden  Crops,  and  the 
Feeding  and  Diseases  of  Farm  Animals  ..... 

•By   EARLEY   VERNON   WILCOX,    Ph.  D. 
mti   CLARENCE    BEAMAN   SMITH,   M.  S. 

Associate  Editors  in  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture 

TJHis    is    a    new,    practical,    and    complete 
I    presentation  of  the  whole  subject  of  ag- 
riculture in  its  broadest  sense.    It  is  de- 
signed for  the  use  of  agriculturists  who 
desire   up-to-date,    reliable   information 
on  all  matters  pertaining  to  crops  and  stock,  but 
more   particularly    for   the   actual    farmer.     The 
volume  contains 

Detailed  directions  for  the  culture  of  every 
important  field,   orchard,   and   garden    crop 

grown  in  America,  together  with  descriptions  of 
their  chief  insect  pests  and  fungous  diseases,  and 
remedies  for  their  control.  It  contains  an  ac- 
count of  modern  methods  in  feeding  and  handling 
all  farm  s^ock,  including  poultry.  The  diseases 
which  affect  different  farm  animals  and  poultry 
are  described,  and  the  most  recent  remedies  sug- 
gested for  controlling  them. 

Every  bit  of  this  vast  mass  of  new  and  useful 
information  is  authoritative,  practical  and  easily 
found,  and  no  effort  has  been  spared  to  include 
all  desirable  details.  There  are  between  6,000 
and  7,000  topics  covered  in  these  references,  and 
it  contains  700  royal  8vo  pages  and  nearly  500 
superb  half-tone  and  other  original  illustrations, 
making  the  most  perfect  Cyclopedia  of  Agricul- 
ture ever  attempted. 


Handsomely  bound  in  cloth.  ^3.  SO;  half  morocco 
(t)ery  jumpluoaj).  JS4-.5O,  postpaid 

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